Groensteen (7.5) Comics and Narration, “Accentuation and Polyrhythm”

 

by Corry Shores

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[The following is summary. Boldface and bracketed commentary are my own.]

 

Thierry Groensteen

Comics and Narration

Chapter 7:
The Rhythm of Comics

7.5
Accentuation and Polyrhythm

 

 

Brief summary:

When the panelization is regularized into a waffle-iron grid, it bears with it inherently a metricized rhythmic cadence. However, the rhythm of such regularized formats can be given accentuations and polyrhythmic layers. Different elements and patterns can be established such that certain parts stand out more rhythmically, and also, at one and the same time various rhythmic patterns can be experienced as flowing together simultaneously. Regularized panelizations can also complicate rhythm in other ways. Chris Ware’s layouts for example can be anti-rhythmic in one sense, because they slow time’s motion down to a crawl. But in another sense, they create other sorts of rhythms in the way we experience that slowed time.

 

 

Summary

[We previously examined some instances of structural irregularities in comics panelizations, and we observed the rhythmic influences they have. For example, speeds of timing may accelerate or decelerate, or syncopations or metrical cadences may suddenly and temporarily appear.] The previous examples we examined demonstrated how rhythm can be accentuated. Because these cases presented anomalous instances of structural regularity within a context of irregularity, “differentiation and accentuation are synonymous” in these instances (151). [So in other words, when the structure is irregular, rhythmic accentuation for the most part comes from local differences. As such, they perhaps lend themselves more to intensive differences like instantaneous variations in speed or amplitude of the beat. However, when the panel structure is regularized, more than just local variations can be implemented, since larger structural organizations can be developed. It seems perhaps Groensteen with his examples is saying that when you have structural regularities, you can establish a context or environment on the basis of which you can “code” or “program in” other variables with rhythmic effects.]

The localized occurrences noted above are specific examples of the accentuation of rhythm (in this context, differentiation and accentuation are synonymous). There now emerges a general rule, which is as follows. In the case of a comic with the smoothest possible beat (regular layout, reiteration of very similar iconic content, standard distribution of balloons over the page), many resources are available for accentuation, whether at the level of the stanza or at that of a single panel. Some of these resources come under the heading of the spatio-topical system, and have, for that reason, been signaled in System 1: a panel can be accentuated by its siting (especially when it occupies the central or the final position), by its shape or by its size. Others concern the content represented. These are: a break in the scale of images, in the continuity of a phased process (cinematic or optical progressivity), or in the chromatic range (through contrast in color). The final parameter that can be brought into play is, as we have seen, the amount of information offered to the reader, and, notably, the amount of text. These different kinds of accentuation can be used at the same time. The more of them the author brings together to make an image or a stanza stand out, the more remarkable the cumulative effect of scansion will be.
(153)

 

[Groensteen next discuss the polyrhythms in La Cage. I unfortunately do not have a copy available at the moment, so I will just have to quote.]

In my essay on La Cage [The Cage] written in 2002, I referred to the superimposition of a number of structuring rhythmic procedures in Martin Vaughn James’s famous experimental “visual novel”:

Like any published work that is inherently visual, La Cage consists of a sequence of double pages that are immediately perceived as a succession of diptychs. To this basic binary beat are added, in this instance, all kinds of rhythmic and even melodic effects. The reader only has to leaf through the book to make them visible: there are sequences which, like musical phrases, are sustained over several diptychs and are then suddenly broken off as another tune comes in; effects of rhyme, repetition, always with [. . .] some variation; alternation between large images split into two halves set out on facing pages and diptychs that juxtapose unrelated, self-sufficient images; and, finally, variations in the framing of the image that affect two of its parameters: size and position on the page. All these procedures, working together, stamp a particular rhythm onto Vaughn James’s visual novel, a rhythm made up of accelerations and pauses, moments of intensity and glissandos. The text intervenes on two levels. Considered in its simple physical materiality, it is, variously, absent altogether, reduced to a single line or expanded into a block of type, and may be positioned above or below the image. Considered as reading matter, it holds the attention for longer or shorter periods.⁴⁴
{Footnote 44 from page 193: “La Construction de La Cage” [The Construction of La Cage], afterword to Martin Vaughn-James, La Cage (Brussels: Les Impressions nouvelles, new edition 2010) p. XLVI.}

[Below is an image that illustrates partially some of these ideas. I obtained it very gratefully from Emmanuel Espinasse's Pinterest page.]

Groensteen cites other examples of polyrhythm from Alan Moore’s, Dave Gibbons’, and John Higgins’ Watchmen. On some pages, there are three layers of rhythm simultaneously at work. This results from an interchange between different scenes, which is like parallel editing in film. {1} There is the grouping of threes of each horizontal strip on the page. {2} There is the interchanging swing between both scenes. And {3} there is the constant repetition of text in each panel, that is not entirely homogeneous, since in one scene it is narration boxing and in another speech ballooning, and also in each box there will be different amounts of text.

The interweaving of different rhythms is also in evidence on certain remarkable pages of Watchmen, characterized by the alternation of two narrative sequences that intersect within the waffle-iron grid, overlaying onto the page an X-shape, which is reinforced by the distinctions in color tone between the two sequences in question.45 Moore’s skill lies in not disrupting the continuity of the text—the same dialogue goes on throughout the entire page, sometimes “on” (the speakers are shown: we will call this scene A) and sometimes “off” (the “image track” is uncoupled from the “soundtrack” and we see another scene in another place: scene B). The result is that on top of the cadence set up by the waffle-iron grid, the A-B-A/B-A-B/A-B-A structure actually interweaves several different rhythms: the ternary rhythm of the strip, the binary rhythm of the A-B alternation, and the rhythm of the text, at once regular in that it sits atop two series of images with no interruption—and irregular, in view of the varying length of the lines of dialogue.
(154)
[Footnote 45 from page 193: See, for example, the second, third, and fourth pages of Chapter 1, the first pages of Chapter 2, or pages 9 and 10 of Chapter 3.]

[Below is an instance where the pattern is obvious, but the panels of the bottom strip are combined.]

[Below are two consecutive pages where the grid remains intact.]

[Perhaps the pattern is more apparent when we place them side-by-side.]

[Below is the ternary rhythm of the three-paneled strips.]

[All while these triplets have their rhythmic effect, at the same time we experience the binary interchanging movement between scenes.]

[And still at the same time there is the constant beat of the text insertions, marking each panel with another tick.]

 

 

Comics  have a basic discontinuity built into them [resulting from the fact that they are segmented into panels.] Comics artists have many ways to create possibilities of rhythm that the reader actualizes through her interpretive reading decisions.

The discontinuity that is the basis of the language of comics ensures that rhythm is a central element of its discursive resources. It has been important to establish the following points here: that the rhythm peculiar to each work is enriched by multiple effects and strategies, that this rhythm is unceasingly | modulated throughout the work as a function of multiple parameters, that almost all the great authors are past masters at interweaving rhythms (emphatic and muted), and, finally, that readers have a role to play in the actualization of these combined processes—it is they who must interpret the score.
(155)

In fact, Chris Ware is the one who made this analogy of the reader interpreting the comic as if it were like a music score. Groensteen then notes the very slow pacing we often find in Ware’s work. It in a sense is a sort of anti-rhythm, since it seems to slow time down.

 

The latter expression originates from Chris Ware (“When you read a comic strip, it’s like reading a musical score. It’s up to us as readers to bring the music from the score alive”);⁴⁶ and if there is one artist who has established , if not rhythm, then at least duration, as one of the essential dimensions of his own poetic art, it is without doubt the author of Jimmy Corrigan, whom we meet again here. When his work first began to attract attention, readers were all struck by his management of time, characterized by the stretching out of certain sequences, sometimes to an almost unbearable extent, further exacerbated by the nature of the sequences in question, which were marked by the immobility and indecisiveness of their protagonists, by non-communication and aphasia. As Jacques Samson writes, in Ware’s work, “time moves sluggishly, and displays its sluggishness.”⁴⁷

[Footnote 46 on page 193: Unpublished comment, during round table with author.]
[Footnote 47 on page 193: Jacques Samson et Benoît Peeters, Chris Ware, la bande dessinée réinventée [Chris Ware, Comic Art Reinvented] (Brussels, Les Impressions nouvelles, 2010), p. 150. See also Georgiana Banita, “Chris Ware and the Pursuit of Slowness,” David M. Ball and Martha B. Kuhlman (eds), The Comics of Chris Ware (Jackson, U P of Mississippi, 2010) pp. 177–90.]

 

[Below is a panel from a Jimmy Corrigan issue of Acme Novelty Library. As you can see, Ware is a genius.]

 

Groensteen explains that there is an anti-rhythmic element in Ware’s design, because much in the imagery is made to be experienced as if things were stagnating. Nonetheless, there are still rhythms in the way we experience the distended temporality of the events, and they can be modulated by such factors as panel sizes and their sequentialized contents.

 

The visual translation of the miring of the action—which amounts to an antirhythm— is achieved by a constant recourse to seriality effects: avoiding shotcounter shot sequences and pointless changes in framing, Ware cultivates instead the systematic, reiterating the same angles of vision over and over again. To which is added a very personal conception of layout, analyzed above (p. 49) as “a combination of quadrangular blocks.” In fact, the eye perceives at first glance that these blocks are not all equivalent: one large image means a pause, another series of small images represents the unfolding of a process, or is a figurative expression of emphasis. To the different formats configured by the artist there correspond different rhythms of apprehending the material, time spans mentally calculated by the reader. Ware likes to quote Goethe’s definition of architecture as “frozen music.” This metaphor applies perfectly to the architecture of his comics pages.

 

Thus even when time seems to stand still, there are yet other structural factors which give those pauses rhythm of a sort.

 

The question of rhythm is, nonetheless, all-pervasive in his work. It is transmitted, as we have seen, by the insistent repetition of certain iconic contents, but also by the mathematical principles on which the compartmentalizing of the space on the page is based. To the “nested regularities” that we have observed (the fact that the panels correspond to three or four standard formats, perfect multiples of each other), there correspond different beats, so that the page (and the narrative as a whole) is made up of interwoven rhythms—even when, within this rhythmic mechanism, the author manages to suspend the flow of time.

 

 

 

 

Works Cited:

 

Thierry Groensteen. Comics and Narration. Translated by Ann Miller. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2013. Originally published as Système de la bande dessinée 2. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2011.

 

 

 

Image credits:

 

 

Martin Vaughn-James. La Cage. Copyright Les Impression nouvelles. Obtained gratefully from Emmanuel Espinasse's Pinterest page:
https://www.pinterest.com/phenixdu16000/sp4ce-k0mix/

Alan Moore (Writer), Dave Gibbons (Illustrator/Letterer), & John Higgins (Colorist). Watchmen #1. September 1986. Copyright DC Comics, 1986.

 

 

Alan Moore (Writer), Dave Gibbons (Illustrator/Letterer), & John Higgins (Colorist). Watchmen #2. October 1986. Copyright DC Comics, 1986.

 

 

Chris Ware. Acme Novelty Library #14. Copyright 2000 Chris Ware. Fantagraphics Books.

 

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Groensteen (7.3) Comics and Narration, “Three Types of Emphasis”

by Corry Shores

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[The following is summary. Boldface and bracketed commentary are my own.]

 

Thierry Groensteen

Comics and Narration

Chapter 7:
The Rhythm of Comics

7.3
Three Types of Emphasis

 

 

Brief summary:

The standardized waffle-iron gird panelization lends itself to a metricized rhythm with a steady cadence. The effects of this cadence can arise either from repetition or alternation. There is repetition when there is a static shot with small variations from panel to panel, and it prolongs key dramatic moments. There is alternation when the contents of the panels switch between poles of variation, as from for example light to dark.

 

 

Summary

[We previously discussed the “waffle-iron” grid layout of comics, with one example being Chester Brown’s Louis Riel. A Comic-Strip Biography. We displayed this panel as illustration:

] In the panel layout of Louis Riel, as we can see, there is a grid of six panels enframed by a fairly thick line. Groensteen says that the cadence can be experienced as stronger or weaker, depending on what is going on in a particular sequence of panels. He further states that there are two sorts of effects involved in these variations of cadence: {1} effects that arise out of repetition, and {2} effects that play on periodic alternation (144).

 

Groensteen begins with repetition. It results when the contents of a series of frames remains homogeneous in a some basic way such that it seems we have one scene seen from a static observer that is prolonged while we witness the activity taking place.

Repetition: this is the effect of the “static shot” of a character, a group, part of the decor (this borrowing from film vocabulary indicates that the whole scene is perceived from a single spatially determined point). I will also refer to this as a “seriality effect.” By repeating the same framing over and over again, the artist emphasizes a key moment within the narrative and prolongs it not on the mode of “and then” but rather of “and still . . . and still . . . .” On page 23, five panels offer a high-angled viewpoint over a stockade. A man is nailing a proclamation to the fence, and people are stopping to read it—first a single passer-by, then two more, then some others. On pages 70–72, the final seconds before the execution of Thomas Scott, found guilty of treason, are cruelly dragged out, as the question as to whether he should stand or kneel before the firing squad is posed | three times. The same framing is used eleven times before the white panel used by Chester Brown to render the actual moment when the condemned man is shot. Throughout the sequence, time seems to stand still, and the sight of Scott becomes more and more unbearable each time it is reiterated. The repetition creates a particular kind of dramatic tension—it is as if the reader can hear the reverberation of the drum that beats out, unflinchingly, these solemn and dreadful moments.²⁸
(144-145)
[Footnote 28 from p.192: Similarly, in From Hell, the almost unbearable scene from chapter 10, which details every step of the murder committed by William Gull on November 9, 1888, and particularly pages 4 to 9, where the victim is savagely disfigured and ripped apart, draws its power from the regularity of the layout and the continuity of the angle of vision. It is noteworthy that From Hell makes frequent use of the static shot, which is not the case for Watchmen. Alan Moore and Eddie Campbell, From Hell (Marietta: Top Shelf Productions, 1999).]

[Below we see the first Louis Riel static shot scene.]

[Now below we see the second static shot scene from this graphic novel.]

[And now below are some of the pages from From Hell that Groensteen cites in the footnote.]

        

 

Repetition, as we saw, maintains a homogeneity across a series of consecutive panels, and this creates also a metricized temporal rhythm. The next sort of rhythmic variation is alternation. The contents might swing between visual poles, like light and dark.

Alternation: Brown makes skilful use of the three colors in his palette, black, white, and gray. The hierarchy of values can be overturned at any point. So black, heavily present in one scene, can disappear altogether in the next. These contrasts may emphasize the general structure of the narrative, its division into scenes, whose respective length is in itself a rhythmic element; they may also set consecutive panels on the same page against each other and create a checkerboard or stroboscopic effect.
(145)

[Below is another page from Louis Riel. In this case, we have starting with panel 2 an alternation of light and dark.]

 

Groensteen then says that there can be alternation also with “actual iconic content or the angle of vision” (145). He notes the trial scene at the end of Louis Riel where there is an alternation of figures all at the same profile perspective. “The rhythmic effect is very powerful, especially in the passages corresponding to the questioning of the witnesses, which have the pace of a verbal and visual ping-pong match” (145). [Below is a page from this trial scene.]

 

[Groensteen then mentions parenthetically the stroboscopic rhythm of Breccia’s adaptation of Poe’s Tell-Tale Heart.]

(There is a famous example of a comic that bases its narrative project on the repetition of a small number of images. This is the Alberto Breccia adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe’s short story, The Tell-Tale Heart.³⁰ I have written elsewhere that “the stroboscopic effect” produced by Breccia proves to be a “remarkable graphic transposition of the heartbeats of the victim” that the murderer believes he can hear in his room.³¹ It is, of course, this auditory hallucination that induces him to confess his crime and to lead police to the body buried under the floorboards.)
(145)
[Footnote 30 on page 192: First published in French in Charlie mensuel, no. 88, (May 1976).]
{Footnote 31 on page 192: See my article: “Le cadavre tombé de rien ou la troisième qualité du scénariste” [The corpse that fell for no reason, or the scriptwriter’s third quality], Revue de l’Université de Bruxelles, nos. 1–2 (1986), Autour du scénario, pp. 111–18”.}

[Below are some  pages from Breccia’s "El corazón delator."]

 

[I am not entirely sure what the next idea is, but it seems that you can have alternation of larger chunks, called periodic alternation. This is like a stanza in poetry, and you could have the equivalent as a group of panels on a comics page. It seems Groensteen indicates that we will deal more with this later when examining irregularity.]

Periodic alternation is one of the eight characteristics of rhythm enumerated by the Belgian philosopher and semiotician Henri Van Lier after an investigation of the properties of human walking. Another of his examples is “stanza formation,” or the combining of several elementary units (in this case, strides) into larger ones.³² The notion of the stanza, used in poetry to designate a section of | the poem made up of several lines, can easily be transposed to comic art. It designates a group made up of several panels that stand out in relation to the page, the sequence, or the book as being particularly salient, because the panels in question produce a seriality effect through the repetition or alternation of content or formal features. The panels in the same stanza echo each other and display one or other of these types of cohesion to a remarkable extent. The stanza is therefore a key component of rhythm, not only in the case of the “waffle-iron” but also, if not more, as we shall soon see, in irregular layouts.
(145-146)
{Footnote 32 on page 192:  See Henri Van Lier, Anthropogénie [Anthropogenics], Brussels: Les Impressions nouvelles, 2010) pp. 18–21. (Translator’s note: Van Lier’s original term is “strophisme.”) The other characteristics of rhythm noted by the author are: interstability, accentuation (which I will include in my own analysis below), tempo, autoengendering, suspense, convection, and distribution through nodes, envelopes, resonances, and interfaces.}

So the first two types of rhythmic effects made possible by the waffle-iron grid are repetition and alternation. The third sort of effect is progressivity, of which there are two sub-types. {1} cinematic progressivity, which is “the cinematic decomposition of the action represented,” and {2} optical progressivity, that is, “the equivalent of the zoom in or out, which gradually brings us closer to or further away form a given subject” (146).

[Cinematic progressivity seems to be like holding the camera in one place while action continues in front of it, and so with regard to comics, it is a series of frames with a homogeneous visual perspective displaying a series of moments in an event.]

Cinematic progressivity usually goes hand in hand with the insistent repetition of the same framing. Historically, it emerges out of the chronophotographic experiments of Muybridge into the breaking down of movement, as Thierry Smolderen has demonstrated.³³ It was with the artist Arthur B. Frost, an ardent admirer of Muybridge, that comics became interested in movement, arising out of its specificity as an art form composed of intervals. Smolderen shows how Frost’s “chronophotographic waffle-iron grid” rapidly became adopted as standard in the Sunday newspaper comics.
(146)
[Footnote 33 from p.192: Naissances de la bande dessinée, op. cit., pp. 104–17.]

[I do not have access yet to Smolderen’s book to know exactly which Frost images he is referring to. But here is a possible example. We see the decomposition of the action, as if a camera is rolling and we are taking out selected frames.]

 

 

Groensteen then says that the progressivity effect is found in Cliff Sterrett’s Polly and her Pals. But I was only able to find one example.]

One of the cartoonists who exploited it to most spectacular effect was certainly Cliff Sterrett.³⁴ Among the Polly and her Pals Sunday strips, there are remarkable examples of “static shots” (for example, the pages from August 8, 1926, and July 13, 1930, which both have an underwater setting and frame only the legs of the characters), and others, just as striking, of the cinematic decomposition of an action (we can cite the occasions when Samuel Perkins falls into the water on August 25, 1926, and August 24, 1927, collides with a passing woman during a storm [March 3, 1929], or attempts to close and secure a trunk [July 21, 1929]). Sometimes the two effects come together, as on the page which sees the same Sam trying to swallow a pill with the help of water from a fountain (January 16, 1927).
(146)
[Footnote 34 on p.192: The work of Frost and Sterrett was published in France in the twenty-first century by the L’An 2 publishing house.]

[Below is the one from August 8, 1926.]

 

Groensteen then notes that he will return to the rhythm of silent/wordless comics later.

 

The structure of the waffle-iron grid is apparent upon the first glance of the page, and three effects we discussed can operate on the level of the page as a whole (147).

 

Along with Polly, there were many other cases of repetition in 20th century comics (147).

 

There are some variations in the waffle-iron grid structure. Watchmen and From Hell for example at times double or triple the panels by combining their sizes. Groensteen’s point is that these exceptional moments have even more pronounced rhythmic effects, given the consistent context they stand out starkly from. Thus the six consecutive splash pages of Watchmen have the effect of being like six gongs of a clock, as if at that moment time stands still.

Among comic books that conform to a regular layout, some observe the rule strictly (this is the case of Louis Riel, a work of deliberate austerity), while others are more flexible in their adherence to it. In Watchmen and From Hell, famously, the nine-panel grid works on a modular system, with some images double or triple the size of a standard panel.³⁵ Although any infringement of the regular pattern is significant, it is obvious that the more it departs from the norm, the more it will stand out. In this respect, the first six pages of the twelfth and last chapter of Watchmen, the only splash pages of the whole work, have a remarkable impact. The rhythm of the narration freezes, and time is suspended over these images of devastation, an effect underlined by the title of the film being shown at the Utopia Cinema: The Day the Earth Stood Still.³⁶ Douglas Wolk has made the valid comment that the reader perceives these six outsize images like “six consecutive unexpected gongs of a clock.”³⁷
(147)
[Footnote 36 on page 192: A famous 1951 film by Robert Wise.]
[Footnote 37 on pages 192-193: See Douglas Wolk, Reading Comics (Cambridge, Ma: Da Capo Press, 2007), p. 239. Other critics have noted that this point about Watchmen also applies to the rest of Alan | Moore’s work: images taking up a whole page almost always coincide with some kind of apocalypse.]

[Here is one of the splash pages mentioned in Watchmen.]

[Here is a page with double and tripled panels, again from Watchmen.]   

[And here is a page from From Hell with a doubled panel.]

 

 

Groensteen next discusses the role of the parameter of “fixed metric form” in creating the comics’ cadence. It is especially for the case of short-format comic strips that artists might choose to use the same regularized panel format each time. Charles Schulz’ Peanuts for example for a long time used a four panel structure. [Below is an example from a very early one.]

Groensteen also notes how Ferri and Larcenet’s Le Retour à la terre  and Diago Aranega’s Victor Lalouz used standard six panel formats.

[Below is a strip from Ferri and Larcenet’s Le Retour à la terre.]

[And below is one of Diago Aranega’s Victor Lalouz.]

Groensteen notes that Schulz made use of the metrical rhythm of these homogenized panel patterns, and in fact he even repeated much in the content, “so to accentuate the slightest variations in posture or facial expression, and confers on them the status of graphic events that are information- and often emotion- bearing” (147-148, quoting his paper  “Le système Schulz” [The Schulz System], Les Cahiers de la bande dessinée, no. 81 (June 1988), pp. 88–113; 91.)

 

 

 

 

Works Cited:

Thierry Groensteen. Comics and Narration. Translated by Ann Miller. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2013. Originally published as Système de la bande dessinée 2. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2011.

 

 

Image credits:

 

Chester Brown. Louis Riel. A Comic-Strip Biography. Copyright 2006 Chester Brown. Drawn & Quarterly.

 

Alan Moore (Writer), Eddie Cambpell (Artist), and Pete Mullins (Contributing Artist). From Hell. Copyright 2006 [1989] Alan Moore and Eddie Campbell. Top Shelf Productions.

 

Alberto Breccia. "El corazón delator." Obtained gratefully from SAP Comics.
http://sapcomics.blogspot.com.tr/2011/09/el-corazon-delator-tell-tale-heart.html

 

Arthur B. Frost. "A Tale of Two Tales." In The Bull Calf and Other Tales, pp.108-112. New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1892. http://archive.org/details/bullcalrtal00fros

 

Cliff Sterrett. Polly and Her Pals. 8-August-1926. Obtained gratefully from: RyallTime Blog. https://ryalltime.wordpress.com/2010/12/09/polly-and-her-pals/

 

Alan Moore (Writer), Dave Gibbons (Illustrator/Letterer), & John Mullins (Colorist). Watchmen #12. December 1986. Copyright DC Comics, 1986.

 

Charles Schultz. The Complete Peanuts: 1950-1952. Copyright 2004 United Feature Syndicate, Inc. Fantagraphic Books.

 

Jean-Yves Ferri & Manu Larcenet. Brigitte Findakly, colorist. Le retour à la terre. 1. La vraie vie. Poisson Pilote, 2002.

 

Diego Aranega. Victor Lalouz. 1. En route pour la gloire.  Dargaud (Poisson Pilote), 2006.

 

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[Labels continuation for entry: Groensteen (7.2) Comics and Narration, “The Cadence of the Waffle-Iron Grid”]

by Corry Shores

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