Showing posts with label Descartes. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Descartes. Show all posts

31 Dec 2018

van Stigt (1.2.1) “Brouwer’s Intuitionist Programme” part 1.2.1, “Intuitionism”, summary

 

by Corry Shores

 

[Search Blog Here. Index-tags are found on the bottom of the left column.]

 

[Central Entry Directory]

[Mathematics, Calculus, Geometry, Entry Directory]

[Logic and Semantics, entry directory]

[Walter P. van Stigt, entry directory]

[Stigt, “Brouwer’s Intuitionist Programme,” entry directory]

 

[The following is summary. I am not a mathematician, so please consult the original text instead of trusting my summarizations. Bracketed comments are my own. Proofreading is incomplete, so please forgive my mistakes.]

 

 

 

 

Summary of

 

Walter P. van Stigt

 

“Brouwer’s Intuitionist Programme”

 

in

 

From Brouwer to Hilbert:

The Debate on the Foundations of Mathematics in the 1920’s

 

Part I.

L.E.J. Brouwer

 

Ch1.:

“Brouwer’s Intuitionist Programme”

 

1.2

“Intuitionism and Brouwer’s Intuitionist Philosophy of Mathematics”

 

[1.2.1]

Intuitionism

 

 

 

 

 

Brief summary:

(1.2.1.1) “Intuitionism is a philosophical trend that places the emphasis on the individual consciousness as the source and seat of all knowledge” (4). Intuitionism holds that the mind has not only a faculty and activity of reasoning but as well “a definite faculty and act of direct apprehension, intuition, as the necessary foundation of all knowledge, both in the grasping of first principles on which a system of deductive reasoning is built and as the critical link in every act of knowing between the knower and the object known” (4). Moreover, “Intuitionism stands in contrast to a more general rationalistic and deterministic trend that denies the possibility of knowing things and facts in themselves and restricts human knowledge to what can be deduced mechanically by analytical reasoning, ultimately from self-evident facts and principles that result from common sense or are based on the authority of collective wisdom” (4). (1.2.1.2) Elements of intuitionism can be found in previous philosophies. Aristotle’s νοῦς, for instance, is something like Brouwerian intuition; for, it is “a special faculty of direct apprehension, an active faculty that is indispensable in the creation of primary concepts and first principles as well as at every step of the thought process” (4). We can also find elements of intuitionism in “the systems of some of the modern German and English philosophers such as Kant, Hamilton, Whewell, and even Russell” (4). (1.2.1.3) Descartes can be considered the father of intuitionism, because for him, “every form of knowing ultimately requires an act of immediate mental apprehension, ‘intuition’” (5). (1.2.1.4) Descartes’ sort of intuitionism saw development in 19th century France by Maine de Biran, Ravaisson, Lachelier, and Boutroux. “It was developed into a full and comprehensive philosophy by Henri Bergson, who raised Intuition to the faculty of grasping the spiritual and changing reality, distinct from Reason, the analytical mind, which probes the material and static reality. Bergson’s living reality, however, did not include the mathematical universe; his concepts of number and the mathematical continuum are spatial, products of the analytical intellect” (5). (1.2.1.5) But the notion of intuition is vague in Descartes as well as with the French “New Intuitionists” Poincaré, Borel, and Lebesgue. It was not made mathematically precise until Brouwer “took Descartes’ intuitionist thesis to its radical subjective and constructive conclusion” (5).

 

 

 

 

 

 

Contents

 

1.2.1.1

[The Main Features of the Philosophy of Intuitionism]

 

1.2.1.2

[Precursors to Intuitionism]

 

1.2.1.3

[Descartes as the Father of Intuitionism]

 

1.2.1.4

[The French Heritage of Descartes’ Intuitionism]

 

1.2.1.5

[Intuitionism Being Made Mathematically Precise by Brouwer]

 

 

 

 

 

 

Summary

 

1.2.1.1

[The Main Features of the Philosophy of Intuitionism]

 

[“Intuitionism is a philosophical trend that places the emphasis on the individual consciousness as the source and seat of all knowledge” (4). Intuitionism holds that the mind has not only a faculty and activity of reasoning but as well “a definite faculty and act of direct apprehension, intuition, as the necessary foundation of all knowledge, both in the grasping of first principles on which a system of deductive reasoning is built and as the critical link in every act of knowing between the knower and the object known” (4). Moreover, “Intuitionism stands in contrast to a more general rationalistic and deterministic trend that denies the possibility of knowing things and facts in themselves and restricts human knowledge to what can be deduced mechanically by analytical reasoning, ultimately from self-evident facts and principles that result from common sense or are based on the authority of collective wisdom” (4).]

 

[ditto]

Intuitionism is a philosophical trend that places the emphasis on the individual consciousness as the source and seat of all knowledge.2 Besides the faculty and activity of reasoning, it recognizes in the individual mind a definite faculty and act of direct apprehension, intuition, as the necessary foundation of all knowledge, both in the grasping of first principles on which a system of deductive reasoning is built and as the critical link in every act of knowing between the knower and the object known. Intuitionism stands in contrast to a more general rationalistic and deterministic trend that denies the possibility of knowing things and facts in themselves and restricts human knowledge to what can be deduced mechanically by analytical reasoning, ultimately from self-evident facts and principles that result from common sense or are based on the authority of collective wisdom.

(4)

2. On the topic of this section, see also Largeault 1993b.

(20)

Largeault, J., 1993b, Intuition et Intuitionisme, Vrin, Paris.

(22)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.2.1.2

[Precursors to Intuitionism]

 

[Elements of intuitionism can be found in previous philosophies. Aristotle’s νοῦς, for instance, is something like Brouwerian intuition; for, it is “a special faculty of direct apprehension, an active faculty that is indispensable in the creation of primary concepts and first principles as well as at every step of the thought process” (4). We can also find elements of intuitionism in “the systems of some of the modern German and English philosophers such as Kant, Hamilton, Whewell, and even Russell” (4).]

 

[ditto]

Elements of Intuitionism can already be found in classical philosophies, for example, in the Aristotelian νοῦς, a special faculty of direct apprehension, an active faculty that is indispensable in the creation of primary concepts and first principles as well as at every step of the thought process. Elements of Intuitionism are also found in the systems of some of the modern German and English philosophers such as Kant, Hamilton, Whewell, and even Russell (for the Kantian roots of Brouwer’s philosophy of mathematics, see Posy 1974). But it is in the revolutionary and libertarian climate of Holland and France that Intuitionism took root and developed into a full and coherent philosophy.

(4)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.2.1.3

[Descartes as the Father of Intuitionism]

 

[Descartes can be considered the father of intuitionism, because for him, “every form of knowing ultimately requires an act of immediate mental apprehension, ‘intuition’” (5).]

 

[ditto]

Descartes, the father of modern philosophy, can rightly be claimed to be the father of modern Intuitionism. A Frenchman by birth, Descartes settled in Holland, “a country” – as he wrote to Balzac – “where complete liberty can be enjoyed.” His rebellion was the fundamental break with the traditional reliance on authority, religious and otherwise, as the ultimate source of truth and placing the origin and seat of knowledge firmly in the individual mind of man. He starts from “self-awareness” and distinguishes between various faculties in the process of acquiring knowledge, | but insists that every form of knowing ultimately requires an act of immediate mental apprehension, “intuition.” He insists on the need for rational argument and sets out rigorous rules of correct reasoning, but points out that logical deductive reasoning does not produce any new truths, that true knowledge comes from intuition.

(4-5)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.2.1.4

[The French Heritage of Descartes’ Intuitionism]

 

[Descartes’ sort of intuitionism saw development in 19th century France by Maine de Biran, Ravaisson, Lachelier, and Boutroux. “It was developed into a full and comprehensive philosophy by Henri Bergson, who raised Intuition to the faculty of grasping the spiritual and changing reality, distinct from Reason, the analytical mind, which probes the material and static reality. Bergson’s living reality, however, did not include the mathematical universe; his concepts of number and the mathematical continuum are spatial, products of the analytical intellect” (5).]

 

[ditto]

Descartes’ intuitionist lead was followed in the nineteenth century by a number of French philosophers such as Maine de Biran, Ravaisson, Lachelier, and Boutroux. It was developed into a full and comprehensive philosophy by Henri Bergson, who raised Intuition to the faculty of grasping the spiritual and changing reality, distinct from Reason, the analytical mind, which probes the material and static reality. Bergson’s living reality, however, did not include the mathematical universe; his concepts of number and the mathematical continuum are spatial, products of the analytical intellect.

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.2.1.5

[Intuitionism Being Made Mathematically Precise by Brouwer]

 

[But the notion of intuition is vague in Descartes as well as with the French “New Intuitionists” Poincaré, Borel, and Lebesgue. It was not made mathematically precise until Brouwer “took Descartes’ intuitionist thesis to its radical subjective and constructive conclusion” (5).]

 

[ditto]

As to the precise nature of Intuition as the foundation of mathematics, Descartes remains somewhat vague: The fundamental mathematical truths are “indubitable” because they are “clearly and distinctly perceived” by the mind’s eye. Yet in his argument for the existence of God, for which he claims “the same level of certainty as the truths of mathematics,” he concludes that these truths, such as the essence and nature of the triangle, are “immutable and eternal and not invented by me nor dependent on my mind” (Descartes, 5th Meditation). Equally vague as to the nature of Intuition are the French “New Intuitionists” Poincaré, Borel, and Lebesgue.3 It was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that an attempt was made at a precise interpretation of mathematical Intuition, when Brouwer took Descartes’ intuitionist thesis to its radical subjective and constructive conclusion.

(5)

On the French Intuitionists, see references given in the introduction to Part 2 and Largeault 1993a and 1993b.

(20)

Largeault, J., 1993a, L’lntuitionisme des mathematiciens avant Brouwer, Archives de Philosophie 56, pp. 53-68.

Largeault, J., 1993b, Intuition et Intuitionisme, Vrin, Paris.

(22)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

From:

 

Stigt, Walter P. van. (1989). “Brouwer’s Intuitionist Programme” In: From Brouwer to Hilbert: The Debate on the Foundations of Mathematics in the 1920’s, edited by Paolo Mancosu. Oxford: Oxford University.

 

 

 

 

9 Oct 2018

Dupréel (1.8) La consistance et la probabilité constructive, sect 1.8, ‘Théorie des idées confuses’, summary

 

by Corry Shores

 

[Search Blog Here. Index tabs are found at the bottom of the left column.]

 

[Central Entry Directory]

[Eugène Dupréel, entry directory]

[Dupréel, La consistance et la probabilité constructive, entry directory]

 

[The following is summary and not translation. Bracketed commentary is my own, as is any boldface. Proofreading is incomplete, so typos are present, including in the quotations. Please consult the original text to be sure about the contents. Also, I welcome corrections to my interpretations, because I am not especially good with French.]

 

 

 

Summary of

 

Eugène Dupréel

 

La consistance et la probabilité constructive

 

Part 1

“La consistance”

 

1.8

“Théorie des idées confuses”

 

 

 

Brief summary:

(1.8.1) Confused ideas are not bundles of knotted clear ideas but are instead the fundamental and exemplary type of all ideas regarding the real, meaning all those having to do with space, time, and action. (1.8.2) (Confused ideas should be seen as being bound into discourses whose developments across their series of words are expressive of concepts.) (1.8.3) The words of these discourses that express confused ideas will be crafted in accordance with the claims the speakers wish to make and the conclusions they want to draw. (1.8.4) A notion only obtains its meaning within the discourse expressing it. (1.8.5) Even though notions will vary in meaning depending on context, some will vary less than others despite the diversity of their contextualizations in different discourses. Such notions are less apt to vary on account of any meaning-modificatory influence the other words may exert on them. Such notions are consistent, and inconsistent ones would be those that have different meanings depending on the sentence or discourse they are found in. (1.8.6) The notions of sensible things are highly consistent. (1.8.7) Formulated notions are highly variable. But their meaning can be restricted and made more consistent by giving them a strict definition. Yet, even this strategy can fail, because the words in the definition are also susceptible to inconsistency in meaning. (1.8.8) Confused ideas can be (artificially at least) reduced to a limited set of clear ideas. But this is not the best way to understand them. (1.8.9) There are many important ideas, like those regarding the moral value of a subject’s action, that cannot be decomposed into clear, morally straightforward and universally agreeable ideas. (1.8.10) Some might argue that any idea that cannot be decomposed into pure, straightforward, universally and objectively knowable and agreeable components is not a valid notion and that rather it would be a useful fiction, a mere social convention. But any socially instituted convention, once created and upheld, becomes a real entity at least in the social reality and in the flux of human experience. (1.8.11) There are certain concepts, like merit and responsibility, that on their fundamental conceptual level are not composed of perfectly unadulterated, unambiguous, and unvarying notions. Yet, they can obtain a sort of consistency when many people consistently find throughout a variety of experiences and circumstances that they prove highly valuable as basic moral notions for society. (1.8.12) It is silly to expect the only notions worthy of usage be completely consistent ones. In fact, probably most ideas that find useful application in real life benefit from having a little bit of logical non-coherence. (1.8.13) Although this granting consistency to confused ideas seems to neglect truth itself in favor of useful fictions, in fact it is only out of the utmost respect for the truth that we would conduct such an inquiry into confused and consistent ideas. (1.8.14) Absolute truth would simply be the formal unity of a judgment in general. But in life, we have systems of affirmations about reality that are irreducible to this abstract form. It is rather the variations in consistency of ideas that allow for these affirmations in the first place. (1.8.15) Descartes’ rationalism assumed clear and simple, perfectly consistent ideas. We have seen however that we cannot reduce all knowledge of the real to such clear ideas. That might lead some to think that we are rejecting rationalism. However, we in fact are appealing to a broader sort of rationalism that is more intersubjective and socially aware.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Contents

 

1.8.1

[Confused Ideas as the Fundamental Ones]

 

1.8.2

[Confused Ideas as Being Bound-Up in Discourses]

 

1.8.3

[The Interests of the Discoursers]

 

1.8.4

[Contextual Meaning]

 

1.8.5

[Notion Consistency as Context Independence]

 

1.8.6

[Sensible Notions as Highly Consistent]

 

1.8.7

[The Inconsistency of Formulated Notions]

 

1.8.8

[The Cartesian Understanding of Confused Ideas]

 

1.8.9

[Certain Important Confused Moral Notions that Cannot be Decomposed into Clear Notions]

 

1.8.10

[Social Conventions as Real]

 

1.8.11

[The Obtained Consistency of Confused but Tried-and-True Conventional Social Notions]

 

1.8.12

[The Non-Coherence of Most Useful Notions]

 

1.8.13

[Respect for the Truth in Appreciation for Socially-Consistencized Confused Ideas]

 

1.8.14

[The Need for Variations of Consistency to Build the Affirmation Systems Used in Life]

 

1.8.15

[The Broader, More Social Rationalism of Accepting the Social Reality and Value of Socially Useful Confused Ideas]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Summary

 

 

1.8.1

[Confused Ideas as the Fundamental Ones]

 

(p.17: “Au fait il convient de renoncer ...”)

 

[Confused ideas are not bundles of knotted clear ideas but are instead the fundamental and exemplary type of all ideas regarding the real, meaning all those having to do with space, time, and action.]

 

[Recall from section 1.2.2 that the consistency of a being is its capacity to endure throughout a series of its vicissitudes. In section 1.3, we noted how similar things tend over time to group together, on account of shared influences and shared capacities to affect and be affected. In section 1.4 we saw how this grouping tendency can go one of two ways. Either the groupings continue this process toward solidification where the parts fuse and thereby lose their individuality and thus their consistency all while the whole they form, which is solidifying, increases its consistency. Or, the whole increases in consistency all while the parts mutually affect one another, but in this second case, the parts in that process likewise increase in consistency, as they increase their individuality and ability to maintain their identity (1.4.2). In section 1.5 we distinguished three types of beings: {1} sensible or perceptible beings (which are also spatial and material), {2} notions, which are those things that depend on a subject to know or express them, like sensations, feelings, thoughts, reveries, and so on, and {3} values, which are dynamic beings, because they lead one to commit deliberative actions. Beings in each category can be classified according to their degrees of consistency. Then in section 1.6, we examined this first category of beings, namely, spatio-temporal ones. The lowest sort (the ones with the least consistency) are “inconsistent” things, which are physical bodies that have properties that depend strongly on the consistencies of external objects. For example, the shape of a liquid or gaseous body depends on the shape of the more solid container enveloping it (see section 1.6.2.) At the middle stage are solids, which are things that are directly perceivable and that are capable of enduring for some time all while undergoing slow degradations, for example: stones, tools, jewels, and even whole planets (see section 1.6.1). And the highest sort of spatio-temporal beings are those that not only can resist and endure detrimental external influences but as well are able to repair themselves after undergoing such alterations, with the outcome of that self-repair often increasing their consistency to a higher degree than before the attack. Examples of the highest kind of spatio-temporal beings (those with the greatest consistency) are living beings, with thinking beings as the highest among them (see section 1.6.3).  Then in section 1.7, we looked at the second class of beings, namely, notions, which are divided into two classes: {1} sensible ideas, which are based more or less directly on perceptions, and {2} intelligible or rational ideas, which are applied to knowledge and conduct and which include fundamental notions of right, morality, economic relations, aesthetics, philosophy, and science in general (1.7.1).  Sensible ideas or perceptual notions are of course grounded in sensory experience. They are assigned names, and given that we have and use our perceptual faculties in common, we can trust that when we refer to perceptual notions that they will be correctly understood by others (1.7.2). Intelligible or rational ideas are formulated (élaborées) notions, but in fact they have less consistency than perceptual notions; for, they undergo variations of their meanings depending on the context and circumstances under which they are formulated, and thus they can be considered confused ideas (1.7.4). We turn now to these confused ideas. We first need to renounce the classical, secular position on the relation of notions regarding clarity and confusion. We should not then take the Cartesian view that a confused idea is really a bunch of clear ideas, that is to say, a bunch of ideas that are simple and perfect by themselves and which would only require their knots to be untied in order to exhibit their clarity. Rather, we will not conceive of a confused idea as an unfortunate accident of sense and reason and instead consider confused ideas as being the fundamental and exemplary type of all ideas regarding the real, meaning all those having to do with space, time, and action.]

Au fait il convient de renoncer à la position classique, séculaire, sur le rapport des notions quant à la clarté et à la confusion. Loin d’admettre avec les cartésiens qu’une idée confuse n’est qu’un ramassis d’idées claires, c’est-à-dire simples et parfaites par elles-mêmes, et qu’il n’y a qu’à démêler ces nœuds pour aboutir à l’évidence, nous sommes porté à penser que l’idée confuse, tout autre qu’un accident malheureux des sens et de la raison, est en réalité le type exemplaire et fondamental de toutes les idées portant sur le réel, c’est-à-dire sur le spatial, le temporel et l’action.

(17)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.2

[Confused Ideas as Being Bound-Up in Discourses]

 

(p.17: “Ce n’est pas l’idée qui est quelque part ”)

 

[(Confused ideas should be seen as being bound into discourses whose developments across their series of words are expressive of concepts.)]

 

[(I probably have this next part wrong. I will give it first in unprocessed form, and secondly I will give my best summarization: This is not the idea that is somewhere in all of its purity and that must be expressed with exactly the word that is dedicated to it. It is rather the discourses whose successive elements lead to being the words that are provided with a capacity of expression.) (So the idea here is maybe that confused ideas are not singular things but are understood more in terms of being discourses whose component parts are words with the capacities to express concepts. I am simply guessing here.]

Ce n’est pas l’idée qui est quelque part dans toute sa pureté et que doit exprimer avec exactitude le mot qui lui est consacré, c’est, ce sont les discours dont les éléments successifs aboutissent à être des mots pourvus d’une capacité d’expression.

(17)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.3

[The Interests of the Discoursers]

 

(p.17: “Les mots se sont précisés ...”)

 

[The words of these discourses that express confused ideas will be crafted in accordance with the claims the speakers wish to make and the conclusions they want to draw.]

 

[The words are made precise through the confused efforts of narrators and arguers.  These (words, efforts, speakers?) are animated by what they wish to accept, and the means of expression they adopt will  be consistent with the result that they seek.]

Les mots se sont précisés parmi les efforts confus des narrateurs et des argumentateurs. Ceux-là sont animés par ce qu’ils veulent faire admettre et les moyens d’expression qu’ils adoptent seront conformes au résultat qu’ils ont en vue.

(17)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.4

[Contextual Meaning]

 

(p.17: “Dès lors, en généralisant la notion d’expression ...”)

 

[A notion only obtains its meaning within the discourse expressing it.]

 

[Thus, by generalizing the notion of expression, we can say the following: A notion only has the meaning (signification, import) that is found in the discourse in which it is expressed. The other words of this discourse are what complete or clarify their meaning.]

Dès lors, en généralisant la notion d’expression, on pourra dire : Une notion n’a jamais que le sens (signification, portée) qu’on lui découvre dans le discours où on la trouve exprimée. Ce sont les autres mots de ce discours qui en achèvent ou en précisent la signification.

(17)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.5

[Notion-Consistency as Context Independence]

 

(p.17-18: “La consistance des notions sera donc ...”)

 

[Even though notions will vary in meaning depending on context, some will vary less than others despite the diversity of their contextualizations in different discourses. Such notions are less apt to vary on account of any meaning-modificatory influence the other words may exert on them. Such notions are consistent, and inconsistent ones would be those that have different meanings depending on the sentence or discourse they are found in.]

 

[The consistency of the notions will then always be linked to the import of the discourse where its expression took place. But in actual use, we find that some notions and their expressions can have the same meaning in a plurality of varied and disparate discourses. Such notions are not subordinated by any influence exerted upon them by the other words or parts of the discourse. Rather, they resist any such influence, and they contribute to the general meaning of the discourse by means of a signification acquired in previous discourses. In other words, these notions are in fact consistent and are so to the extent that their contribution to the operation of the whole outweighs their impressionability. These would be the most utilized and least debatable words in the body of terms at a language’s disposal. Inconsistencies, however, would be those notions that are susceptible to giving a sense that is totally dependent on the whole of a sentence or discourse and that consequently will vary considerably.]

La consistance des notions sera donc toujours liée à la portée du discours où son expression a pris place. Mais il se découvre, à l’usage, que certaines notions et leur expression peuvent avoir la même signification dans une pluralité de discours variés et disparates. Ces notions-là, loin d’être totalement subordonnées à l’influence qu’exercent sur elles les autres mots ou parties du discours, résistent à cette influence et contribuent au sens général du discours par une signification acquise dans des discours antérieurs. C’est dire que ces notions sont consistantes du fait et en proportion que leur contribution à l’opération d’ensemble l’emporte sur leur impressionnabilité. Et ce sont les mots les plus utilisés et les moins discutables dans le trésor des termes dont un langage dispose. Inconsistantes au contraire seront les notions | susceptibles d’offrir un sens totalement dépendant de l’ensemble de la phrase ou du discours, et de varier, par suite, considérablement.

(17-18)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.6

[Sensible Notions as Highly Consistent]

 

(p.18: “Les notions des choses sensibles, ...”)

 

[The notions of sensible things are highly consistent.]

 

[The notions of sensible things, which are always verifiable by turning again to perception, remain the same for the diversity of perceiving subjects despite their opposing concerns. They are not very confused, they are quite consistent, or they are exposed only to extensions of easily discernible senses.]

Les notions des choses sensibles, toujours vérifiables par un nouveau recours à la perception, s’imposant de même à la diversité des sujets percevants, en dépit de leurs préoccupations opposées, sont, nous l’avons reconnu, des notions peu confuses, très consistantes, ou exposées seulement à des extensions de sens aisément discernables.

(18)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.7

[The Inconsistency of Formulated Notions]

 

(p.18: “Ce privilège ne s’étend pas aux notions élaborées ...”)

 

[Formulated notions are highly variable. But their meaning can be restricted and made more consistent by giving them a strict definition. Yet, even this strategy can fail, because the words in the definition are also susceptible to inconsistency in meaning.]

 

[This privilege (of being highly consistent across diverse contexts) does not extend to the formulated notions (notions élaborées) of our second category. (Recall again from section 1.7 that among the second class of beings, namely, notions, there are two categories: {1} sensible ideas, which are based more or less directly on perceptions, and {2} intelligible or rational ideas, which are applied to knowledge and conduct and which include fundamental notions of right, morality, economic relations, aesthetics, philosophy, and science in general (1.7.1). Perceptual notions, we said, are grounded in sensory experience. They are assigned names, and given that we have and use our perceptual faculties in common, we can trust that when we refer to perceptual notions that they will be correctly understood by others (1.7.2). Intelligible or rational ideas are formulated (élaborées) notions, but in fact they have less consistency than perceptual notions; for, they undergo variations of their meanings depending on the context and circumstances under which they are formulated, and thus they can be considered confused ideas (1.7.4).) But, the inconsistency of such formulated notions can be lessened by giving them a carefully crafted definition that restricts it from taking one or another deviation in its meaning and instead holds just to a single one. Yet, the rigor of this definite meaning remains always imperfect, because the definition itself will use words that are susceptible to being afflicted with this same inconsistency.]

Ce privilège ne s’étend pas aux notions élaborées de notre deuxième catégorie. Là aussi cependant leur inconsistance peut être atténuée par une définition soignée qui écarte formellement telle ou telle déviation de sens, pour ne retenir qu’une acception unique, qui laisse en dehors d’elle un résidu qu’il faudra traiter par d’autres définitions. Encore la rigueur du sens défini demeure-t-elle toujours imparfaite, car la définition elle-même se sert de mots susceptibles d’être affligés de la même inconsistance.

(18)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.8

[The Cartesian Understanding of Confused Ideas]

 

(p.18: “Certes, et c’est heureux pour la vie sociale qui ...”)

 

[Confused ideas can be (artificially at least) reduced to a limited set of clear ideas. But this is not the best way to understand them.]

 

[(The next part in unprocessed form seems to be something like the following: Certainly – and it is fortunate for social life, which would otherwise be arrested at the lowest level – confused notions can be reducible to a finite number of clear ideas, that is to say, of being imposed practically as such to adhesion, conforming to the theses of classical Cartesianism; but this is an occasion to mark a capital and decisive proposition of the theory of confused ideas.) (I will guess that the main ideas here are the following. If we could never make our confused notions more precise, then social life would not be able to develop very far. So fortunately confused ideas can be (artificially at least) reduced to a limited set of clear ideas, like we noted in section 1.8.1 above regarding the Cartesian conception of confused ideas. Nonetheless, at this point we should further examine this problematic view.)]

Certes, et c’est heureux pour la vie sociale qui, autrement serait arrêtée au plus bas niveau, force notions confuses ne manquent pas d’être réductibles à un nombre fini d’idées claires, c’est-à-dire s’imposant pratiquement comme telles à l’adhésion, conformément aux thèses du cartésianisme classique ; mais ceci est une occasion de marquer une proposition capitale et décisive de la théorie des idées confuses.

(18)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.9

[Certain Important Confused Moral Notions that Cannot be Decomposed into Clear Notions]

 

(p.18: “Il est aisé de découvrir que telles notions éminentes ...”)

 

[There are many important ideas, like those regarding the moral value of a subject’s action, that cannot be decomposed into clear, morally straightforward and universally agreeable ideas.]

 

[(The next part, unprocessed, seems to be something like the following: It is easy to discover that such eminent and irreplaceable notions exclude this reducibility, and they are among the most fundamental of all superior activities. Such are the notions that recognize in the acting subject – be they matters of merit or demerit – the idea of responsibility and accountability. And we can show that the critical attention directed on this side will go so far as to state that in everything that follows from the idea of an active subject, and even more so, in everything that is connected with the idea of causality, we will find implied irreducibly confused notions. Thus, merit includes an interpretation that is foreign to all logic of two conditions of existence, the intention of the subject and the success of its effort, where chance plays an inevitable role.) (I am guessing the main ideas are the following. From what I can tell, confused notions are those that involve high variability and whose meanings at best can be provisionally and arbitrarily stipulated, although probably with little lasting effect on their consistency. We said in section 1.8.8 above that we might try to artificially decompose certain confused ideas into constituent clear ones. But this will not work for certain notions, and this is especially the case for certain ones that are the most fundamental for discussing human moral activity. One example are the ideas of responsibility and accountability in an active subject, which are required for us to evaluate the merits or demerits of our activities. But what we find when we try to decompose the ideas of an active subject or of causality itself down to constituent parts will only result in fundamental, confused notions. So when we try to clarify our notion of merit, what we find is that it involves two irreducibly confused notions regarding the intention of the subject and the consequences of its actions, which largely involve pure chance. Thus, it is hard to say that we can straightforwardly know universally that some person’s actions deserve praise, because the criteria we would propose concerning their responsibility for their actions will be concepts like intention and consequence which cannot be given a straightforward moral sense, as they are never entirely matters of the subject themself and instead involve factors of chance outside the subject’s control. That is my best guess, but surely it is wrong, so please see the quotation below.)]

Il est aisé de découvrir que telles notions éminentes, irremplaçables, excluent cette réductibilité, et elles sont parmi les plus fondamentales de toute activité supérieure. Telles sont les notions qui reconnaissent au sujet agissant, soit du mérite, soit du démérite, l’idée de responsabilité et d’imputabilité, et l’on pourra démontrer que l’attention critique dirigée de ce côté ira jusqu’à constater que dans tout ce qui découle de l’idée d’un sujet actif, plus encore, dans tout ce qui se rattache à l’idée de causalité, on trouvera impliquées des notions irréductiblement confuses. Ainsi le mérite comporte une interpénétration étrangère à toute logique de deux conditions d’existence, l’intention du sujet et le succès de son effort, où le hasard joue un rôle inévitable.

(18)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

1.8.10

[Social Conventions as Real]

 

(p.18-19: “Ceux qui ne conviendraient pas ...”)

 

[Some might argue that any idea that cannot be decomposed into pure, straightforward, universally and objectively knowable and agreeable components is not a valid notion and that rather it would be a useful fiction, a mere social convention. But any socially instituted convention, once created and upheld, becomes a real entity at least in the social reality and in the flux of human experience.]

 

[(The next part unprocessed might be something like the following: Those who would not agree that a notion can at the same time be both valid and irreducible to any logical unity would be claiming that there is no merit and instead there are only useful fictions or conventions. A “convention” would be opposed to reality, but there is nothing more real than a convention, and to institute and to observe a convention is to properly create a new reality, and it is the installation of a being in the torrent of facts.) (The ideas here I will guess are the following. We said in section 1.8.9 above that the notion of the merit and of demerit of a subject’s action is built upon fundamentally confused notions about intention, causality, and consequence. They are confused, I guessed, because in actuality these matters involve chance factors that make it impossible to find some pure element of a subject’s actions that are 100 percent entirely their own doing. So instead, we might allow the notion of merit to have fuzzy conceptual foundations that are not entirely and universally and objectively determinable. As a possible example, maybe we might say that the person who helped the old lady across the street did do it partly to look good in public, because of contingent factors like childhood training, and maybe the person in some cases would help and other not, and by chance they were just more in the mood to do it today. Still, we do not necessarily want to say that the person’s action was without merit. The idea now in this paragraph might be that those who would say that on account of the fudgy conceptual foundations of the notion of merit in subjective action, that this notion is not valid. For, it is irreducible to some solid logical conceptual unity (it is rather a conceptual mixture of freely guided willful action and chance or determinative influences). Such a person arguing this might say that “merit” can therefor not be a some actual thing in reality, but is merely an ideal that is held to be important or pretended to be real only by social convention, which finds it to be a useful fiction for building a cohesive society. However, Dupréel might be observing in contrast to this position, such conventions when they are created present new entities in social reality. That is my guess for the main ideas of this paragraph. See the text below.)]

Ceux qui ne conviendraient pas qu’une notion puisse être à la fois valable et irréductible à toute unité logique en seraient réduits à décider qu’il n’y a pas de mérite, qu’il n’y a là que fiction utilitaire, une convention. « Convention » serait ici opposée à réalité, mais il | n’y a rien de plus réel qu’une convention, l’instituer et l’observer c’est proprement créer une réalité nouvelle, c’est l’installation d’un être dans le torrent des faits.

(18-19)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.11

[The Obtained Consistency of Confused but Tried-and-True Conventional Social Notions]

 

(p.19: “Ce ne sont pas seulement les notions pourvues ”)

 

[There are certain concepts, like merit and responsibility, that on their fundamental conceptual level are not composed of perfectly unadulterated, unambiguous, and unvarying notions. Yet, they can obtain a sort of consistency when many people consistently find throughout a variety of experiences and circumstances that they prove highly valuable as basic moral notions for society.]

 

[(In unprocessed form: It is not only the notions having a complete logical coherence (if there are any such notions to begin with) that deserve to be considered and retained as what the social order takes to be its most respectable supports, there are also notions where it is the agreement of the consciousnesses encouraged by the experience of their fruitfulness which provides to all social notions, such as merit, demerit, and responsibility, a consistency that is precarious but nonetheless eminent.) (The idea here might be: It is true that were there any such completely logically coherent moral notions, then they would deserve to lie at the foundations of the social order. Yet, there are other moral notions that are not entirely logically coherent at their bases but which prove their great value in actual living practice. And it is the consistency of agreement of the members of society who have discovered this consistent value of the confused moral notion, like merit or responsibility, that lends to the coherence of that notion (that is, to the ability of the concept to maintain itself across varying contexts), even though this consistency is not based inherently on its own conceptual constitution.]

Ce ne sont pas seulement les notions pourvues d’une entière cohérence logique (s’il en est de telles !) qui méritent d’être considérées et retenues comme les soutiens de ce que l’ordre social a de plus respectable, il y a aussi des notions où c’est l’accord des consciences encouragé par l’expérience de leur fécondité qui procure à des notions toutes sociales, telles que le mérite, le démérite, la responsabilité une consistance, précaire il est vrai, mais éminente.

(19)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.12

[The Non-Coherence of Most Useful Notions]

 

(p.19: “Il va de soi que plus une notion ...”)

 

[It is silly to expect the only notions worthy of usage be completely consistent ones. In fact, probably most ideas that find useful application in real life benefit from having a little bit of logical non-coherence.]

 

[Of course the more a formulated notion is consistent (in that it is capable of not varying despite the variety of the contexts of its usage), the more worthy it is of being held and used. Yet, it would be silly to want to only hold to those notions with an indisputable logical coherence. On the contrary, a relative confusion in an idea can make it irreplaceable in deliberations and conclusions. We might even go so far as to say that all thoughts that would be applied to reality would benefit from some irreducibility in their logical non-coherence.]

Il va de soi que plus une notion élaborée est consistante, c’est-à-dire capable de ne pas varier de sens selon les cas de l’employer, plus elle mérite d’être retenue et de servir, mais ce serait chimère que de vouloir ne retenir que les notions d’une cohérence logique indiscutable (1) . Au contraire, une confusion relative dans une idée peut la rendre irremplaçable dans les délibérations et les conclusions. On oserait dire que quelqu’irréductibilité dans la non-cohérence logique demeure constitutionnelle au sein de la pensée appliquée à la réalité.

(19)

(1) Répétons encore que tout ce qui implique l’idée de causalité, serait compromis dans ce cas. L’idée de causalité est toute pratique et utilitaire, provisoire tout au plus dans la science en raison de l’inachèvement de celle-ci. La preuve c’est que l’on choisit pour la nommer cause d’un phénomène, celle de ses conditions toujours multiples, à laquelle on s’intéresse, soit pour la produire, soit pour l’empêcher.

(19)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.13

[Respect for the Truth in Appreciation for Socially-Consistencized Confused Ideas]

 

(p.19: “Ces vues sur les notions confuses ...”)

 

[Although this granting consistency to confused ideas seems to neglect truth itself in favor of useful fictions, in fact it is only out of the utmost respect for the truth that we would conduct such an inquiry into confused and consistent ideas.]

 

[(In unprocessed form: These views on confused notions, many of which being eminent and irreplaceable, do not fail to direct the critical effort toward the fundamental problems of truth itself. Without entering here into such an examination, let us dispel certain anxieties that these views on the confused in knowledge could evoke regarding the supremacy of the true over the false. On the contrary, it is in the name of full respect for the truth that any inquiry into the confused and into the consistency of ideas must be pursued.) (The main ideas seem to be: We have said that confused ideas can obtain consistency through their proven usefulness in social life that all members concur about. This might strike some people as a rejection of truth itself, because it seems to claim that universal truth is ultimately irrelevant. On the contrary, however, it is out of the utmost respect for the truth that we would conduct an inquiry into confused and consistent ideas.)]

Ces vues sur les notions confuses, dont beaucoup sont éminentes et irremplaçables, ne manquent pas de diriger l’effort critique vers les problèmes fondamentaux de la vérité. Sans entrer ici dans un tel examen, écartons certaines inquiétudes que ces vues sur le confus dans la connaissance pourraient susciter quant à la suprématie du vrai sur le faux. Au contraire, c’est au nom du respect intégral de la vérité que toute enquête sur le confus et la consistance des idées doit être poursuivie.

(19)

 

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.14

[The Need for Variations of Consistency to Build the Affirmation Systems Used in Life]

 

(p.19-20: “La position d’une vérité absolue exigerait ...”)

 

[Absolute truth would simply be the formal unity of a judgment in general. But in life, we have systems of affirmations about reality that are irreducible to this abstract form. It is rather the variations in consistency of ideas that allow for these affirmations in the first place.]

 

[The position of an absolute truth would require that anything that is judged to have this quality be reduced to the unity of a judgment. As soon as we are dealing with a system of affirmations about reality, that is to say, about a subject that is irreducible to this unity of a judgment, the requirements of absolute truth must bend. A philosophical doctrine is neither completely true nor radically false, nor is a lengthy argument or a political system. Truth and relative confusion are mingled in any knowledge-filled life, and it is here that we find the variations of consistency that (can provide for the affirmations).]

La position d’une vérité absolue exigerait que tout ce qu’on juge pourvu de cette qualité fût réduit à l’unité d’un jugement. Dès qu’il s’agit d’un système d’affirmations sur la réalité, c’est-à-dire sur un sujet irréductible à cette unité, les exigences de la vérité absolue doivent fléchir. Une doctrine philosophique n’est jamais ni complètement vraie ni radicalement fausse, de même | un long plaidoyer ou un système politique. Vérité et confusion relative se mêlent dans toute vie comportant connaissance et c’est là qu’on retrouve les variations de la consistance dont peuvent être pourvues les affirmations.

(19-20)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.8.15

[The Broader, More Social Rationalism of Accepting the Social Reality and Value of Socially Useful Confused Ideas]

 

(p.20: “L’impossibilité de réduire toute connaissance ...”)

 

[Descartes’ rationalism assumed clear and simple, perfectly consistent ideas. We have seen however that we cannot reduce all knowledge of the real to such clear ideas. That might lead some to think that we are rejecting rationalism. However, we in fact are appealing to a broader sort of rationalism that is more intersubjective and socially aware.]

 

[(In unprocessed form this might be: The impossibility of reducing all knowledge of the real to this tissue of clear and simple ideas, which were assumed in Descartes’ rationalism and that were the fruit of the individualist spirit of the Renaissance, in no way excludes rationalism as such in favor of  some vague desire for the supernatural; it rather suggests a wider sort of rationalism that is freer from the knowledge of a single subject and better informed of the constitutional importance of the life of many.) (The main ideas here might be the following. Descartes’ rationalism assumed clear and simple, perfectly consistent ideas. We have seen however that we cannot reduce all knowledge of the real to such clear ideas. That might lead some to think that we are rejecting rationalism. However, we in fact are appealing to a broader sort of rationalism that is more intersubjective and socially aware.)]

L’impossibilité de réduire toute connaissance du réel à ce tissu d’idées claires et toutes simples, que supposait le rationalisme selon Descartes, fruit de l’esprit individualiste de la Renaissance, n’exclut en rien le rationalisme comme tel, au profit de n’importe quelle velléité de « surnaturel », elle suggère au contraire un rationalisme plus large, plus affranchi de la connaissance d’un seul sujet, mieux avisé de l’importance constitutionnelle de la vie à plusieurs.

(20)

[contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dupréel, Eugène. (1961). La consistance et la probabilité constructive. (Classe des lettres et des sciences morales et politiques 55, no.2). Brussels: Académie Royale de Belgique.

PDF at:

http://www.academieroyale.be/fr/les-publications-memoires-detail/oeuvres-2/la-consistance-et-la-probabilite-constructive/.\

.

.

27 Aug 2017

Parain (2) Recherches sur la nature et les fonctions du langage, ch.2 “La dénomination”


by Corry Shores

[Search Blog Here. Index tabs are found at the bottom of the left column.]

[Central Entry Directory]
[Logic and Semantics, entry directory]
[Brice Parain, entry directory]
[Parain, Recherches sur la nature et les fonctions du langage, entry directory]

[The following is summary (and not translation). Bracketed commentary is my own, as is any boldface. Paragraph enumerations are also my own, but they follow the paragraph divisions in the text. Proofreading is incomplete, so typos remain, even in the quotations. So please consult the original text. Also, I welcome corrections to my interpretations, as my French is not good enough to make an accurate translation of the text.]




Summary of

Brice Parain

Recherches sur la nature et les fonctions du langage

Ch.2 La dénomination



Brief summary:
Our words exist in a different realm than that of the things they denominate. The realm of the word itself is one of fixities and universals, while the world of things and events that words reference and that we perceive is fleeting and contains just particulars. There are two main illustrations for this. {1} A peasant farmer is digging up potatoes. He has impressions of the changing, dynamic world around him. He notices many things silently, and these images pass in and out of his awareness. But he suddenly sees something white in the soil. It is a beetle larva. This image calls to his mind the image of a beetle infestation that will come later. He exclaims, “Hey, a white worm!”. He thereby turns his awareness no longer to the actual white grub in the soil, which is metamorphosing gradually into a beetle, and instead he turns it toward a conceptual class of things, beetles (or a beetle infestation). But this word/image of the class of things, white worms (or beetles), is not the actual thing itself in the soil. {2} The “I” in “I am hungry” or even in Descartes cogito argument refers not to the speaker in the flesh and in her entirety, but rather to a linguistic entity that expresses no more than some aspect of the speaker that is relevant in that context. [The use of the “I” is a matter of the manifestation of this linguisticized self.]
 
 
 
 
Summary
 
First for context, some passages from Ch.1:
(pp.26-27. “Le paysan qui arrache ... le mouvement a été rapide et naturel”)
 
[A peasant is digging up potatoes. While in the act of letting his digging tool fall, he sees something white in the dirt and then diverts the path of the falling tool so that it avoids hitting the white thing. Here there are images of the thing in the world and of the action to divert the motion which is interacting with the world, but there are no other images or reasoning intervening between the two. It was a spontaneous reaction.]
 
Suppose there is field worker who is digging up potatoes. And, while his digging tool (a spading fork or something similar) is still raised, ready to fall, he notices a bit of white at the bottom of the hole he is digging. He then immediately shifts the motion of the falling tool to avoid this spot that alarms him. This movement is so spontaneous that it would seem to have involved little to no reasoning. Cats exhibit similar abilities when playing and fighting. It would seem that the visual impression immediately provoked the response movement of diverting the tool. And it would also seem that the image of the danger spontaneously engendered the image of the deflected strike of the tool, without there being any other images intervening between those two, given that the movement was so rapid and natural.
Le paysan qui arrache ses pommes de terre, s’il aperçoit au fond du trou qu’il creuse, tandis que son | crochet est levé, un reflet d’une couleur insolite, dévie aussitôt l’élan de son outil pour épargner cet endroit qui l’étonne. Il n’a pas besoin, semble-t-il, de raisonner pour cela. Les chats ont de telles adresses et de tels redressements lorsqu’ils jouent et plus encore lorsqu’ils se battent. On dirait qu’alors l’impression visuelle a provoqué immédiatement la réponse du geste, et que l’image du danger a engendré spontanément l’image de la parade, sans que rien d’autre ait pu intervenir entre elles, tant le mouvement a été rapide et naturel.
(26-27)
 
 
 
Ch.2 La dénomination
 
2.1
(p.33. “Revenons à notre paysan ...”)
 
[The peasant who is digging potatoes cries out, “Hey! A white worm!” The image of the white worm calls to his mind the image of a coming beetle infestation. By denominating the “white worm”, he pulls this image out of his flux of impressions (and out of the flux of changes the world is undergoing) to help it stand firmer in his memory. He thereby gives the image a new mode of existence, taking it out of the flux of becoming and fixing it into a realm of reasoning.]
 
The peasant in our example suddenly cries out, “Hey! A white worm!” If all he needed to do was to kill the worm, he could have done it without saying a word and at most letting out a sound simply expressing his surprise. But the presence of the white grub is a very serious matter. It portends beetles for the next year. By seeing the grub, the peasant thereby sees the coming menace of beetles. The image of the white grub calls into his mind the image of the beetle. And since he can do nothing about the situation at that moment, he puts aside the event in order to face it in some way other than by using his digging tool. And recall that he yelled out the name of the thing he saw, “Un ver blanc!” Naming the white worm helps his memory preserve this image that would have been retained less faithfully had he not given the image its name. [Normally images will come and go fluidly through one’s experience, just as the things in the world are in constant flux. What makes this worm so threatening is that it is in the process of becoming a real pest, a beetle. But by naming it, we reify a phase in its flux, which is unlike both the constant flow of our experience and the continual flux of becoming in the real world that we experience.] The peasant attributes a particular existence to this image of the worm. In doing so, he grants it a constancy that it does not have in nature, transforming it into an abstract object of reflection and reasoning. This detaches it from becoming in order to place it into the cycles of his knowledge. So if we want to say there is something that might distinguish us from animals, this would seem to be it.
Revenons à notre paysan. Il s’écrie soudain : « Tiens ! », ou encore : « Tiens ! Un ver blanc ! ». S’il n’avait eu besoin que de détruire la larve, il l’aurait fait, probablement, sans une parole, comme à l’instant pour la pomme de terre cachée, tout au plus en poussant une exclamation qui n’aurait eu d’autre sens que d’exhaler sa surprise, ou de marquer un temps de son travail. Mais la présence du ver blanc est chose grave; elle prédit des hannetons pour l’année prochaine. Cette menace, le paysan la voit en voyant la bête. L’image du ver blanc appelle en lui l’image du hanneton. Et comme il n’y peut rien tout de suite, il réserve l’événement pour y faire face autrement que par un coup de son crochet. Et nommant le ver blanc, il aide sa mémoire qui conserverait moins fidèlement une image non nommée. Surtout il attribue à cette image une existence particulière, il lui donne une consistance qu’elle n’a pas de nature, il la transforme en un objet de réflexion et de raisonnement, il la détache du devenir pour la poser dans le cycle de la connaissance. Voilà ce dont il paraît bien que les animaux soient incapables, et en même temps la première distinction que nous puissions établir entre eux et nous.
(33)
 
 
2.2
(pp.33-34. “A première vue, donc, ...”)
 
[There are two patterns of human activity. In the first, we have a sensory impression that produces an image of the situation, which then calls to mind an implicated image that is provoked in the mind, like the image of a future consequence of a present situation. Then we react to that suggested image in our present actions, closing the cycle. Or, we might think abstractly about the impressed and evoked images by naming the things, the situations, and the implications that are involved and by reflecting on them rationally. This introduces a limitless cycling, because any conception can be reconsidered, reformulated in new ways, and debated endlessly.]
 
This illustration shows us that human activity can happen in accordance with two patterns or structures. {1} In the first pattern or structure, our activities involve a continuous and enclosing circuit: First we have an initial impression. Secondly that initial impression provokes suggested images in our mind. Thirdly we take an action in response to those suggested images. {2} The second pattern or structure begins the same way but diverts down a different trajectory [creating new cycles above and beyond the action-reaction cycles mentioned above, which do not cease their motion either]: First we have an initial impression. Secondly we introduce the new element of language. [We name the image of what we see and reflect on its logical implications, also taking the form of images, like the images of a beetle infestation following the image from the sensory impression of the white grub.] While the first cycle is finite, in that it closes when we commit our reaction, the second cycle is infinite, because the procedures of reasoning involve constant reformulation and reconsideration. [We can keep thinking about, studying, and debating a situation that has been articulated in language, writing about it, commenting on those writings, commenting on those comments, and so on. Just think for example of the philosophical debates that have raged through history for thousands of years and show no sign of definitive resolution.]
A première vue, donc, notre activité humaine est | double. Tantôt elle parcourt d’un mouvement qui paraît continu un circuit qui semble se refermer naturellement sur lui-même, et qui est jalonné par l’impression initiale, la proposition d’images qu’elle provoque, et l’action qui lui répond. Tantôt elle introduit dans ce cycle un nouvel élément qui est le langage, et qui l’ouvre, autant dire, sur l’infini. Car il n’y a jamais de conclusion définitive à aucun raisonnement ; l’oubli n’a pas de prise sur les mots, de paroles ils deviennent des formules écrites, de formules des livres et les livres se répondent les uns aux autres comme en un dialogue qui n’est jamais achevé.
(33-34)
 
 
2.3
(p.34. “Pourtant avons-nous le droit ...”)
 
[However, it could also be that the language element, instead of creating separate and distinct cycles of human activity on the level of reasoning, penetrates the more “animal” action-reaction cycles of immediate behavior.]
 
[We said above that the cycles of human activity occur above and beyond the cycles of immediate action and reaction.] But are we right to say that the there is this difference in nature between the two forms of human activity, namely, between reactivity to immediately suggested images and endless linguistic reflection on these images? On the contrary it could instead be that language penetrates into the action-reaction cycles, which we think to be of the most animal sort.
Pourtant avons-nous le droit d’affirmer qu’il y ait une telle différence de nature entre ces deux formes de notre activité ? Il se pourrait, au contraire, que le langage pénétrât jusque dans la forme qui nous apparaît comme la plus animale et que notre nostalgie du silence ne fût qu’un rêve analogue à celui qui fit naître le mythe de l’âge d’or ou celui de l’état de nature, c’est-à- dire encore un phénomène littéraire.
(34)
 
 
2.4
(p.34-35. “Si le paysan, dans le premier exemple ...”)
 
[By naming situations, we fabricate objectifications or at least unify vague regions in our fields of sensory data.]
 
Recall the peasant who sees the white thing in the dirt. If he says nothing, it is because he knows what action to take. This is how we normally behave during such usual or habitual situations. But our surprise in a situation will always trigger a reflection whereby language intervenes into our activity. A child, before learning language, when surprised will let out an exclamation that is not simply a meaningless cry but is rather an early effort at making a denotation [that names the situation that surprises them.] [I do not gather very well the point made in the next part of this paragraph, but it I will guess it is the following. The main idea is that without language to name things in our world, we would receive information about our surroundings that we cannot process and whose source we cannot identify. This is like a fly that keeps banging into a transparent glass window that it cannot see. I will now make further guesses, but please consult the quotation below to see what is really meant. So language then in a way creates objectifications that are not so clearly unified in our sensory data. For example, something like the horizon in the distance may not really be something so clear and distinct, but our mind, out of expecting conceptually for there be to such a thing, “sees” a unity in the vague sensory data given from that part of our vision. In fact, it is also possible that the very difference we feel between us and the world is a linguistic construction presented into our sensory data, which is why when we close our eyes we might experience a loss of a feeling of our personality and instead feel a sort of integration with the world or deeper sense of belonging where the boundary between us and it vanishes.]
Si le paysan, dans le premier exemple, ne dit rien, c’est qu’il sait, autant qu’il a besoin de le savoir, quelle conduite il doit tenir. Ainsi nous comportons-nous en face de tout événement habituel. Mais l’étonnement déclenche toujours une réflexion où le langage intervient. L’enfant ponctue toutes ses premières surprises d’une exclamation, qui n’est pas un simple cri mais un essai de dénomination. Imaginons, pour un instant, ce que serait le monde extérieur si nous n’avions pas le langage. Quand nous voyons une mouche qui, obstinément, revient se cogner contre la même vitre, nous pensons qu’elle est sotte ; mais si nous y réfléchissons, nous comprenons bien vite que chez elle, la sensation demeure, vraisemblablement, à l’état fruste, comparée à la nôtre, et que la mouche, de ces coups qu’elle reçoit, puis qu’elle ira jusqu’à en être étourdie, ne conclut rien d’autre que nous lorsqu’en rêve nous nous débattons contre un poids qui nous oppresse, incapables de lui donner un nom, subissant, sans y rien pouvoir, le cauchemar qu’il provoque en nous. Quelle est donc cette porte contre laquelle je me heurte dans l’obscurité | sinon la douleur de mon front et la route barrée à mon passage ? Dès que je ferme les yeux je perds le sentiment de ma personnalité, et je tombe dans un état d’appartenance où les frontières s’effacent entre le monde et moi. Il faut alors que je me reprenne, pour distinguer le bruit qui m’entoure du mouvement de ma propre vie. Et même lors que mes yeux sont ouverts devant moi, aux moments où je ne regarde pas, je ne saurais dire si l’horizon est une ligne brumeuse au loin ou l’attente de mon esprit.
(p.34-35)
 
 
 
2.5
(p.35. “L’insecte, sans doute, se meut ...”)
 
[Without language, we would just have a realm of action and reaction and no exterior homogeneous world existing independently to our immediate activities. But denomination reifies sense data and their images, creating external objects in an independent objective world. Our perceptions are shaped by denomination, which serves a mode of judgment inherent to our perception, and it is responsible for how our perceptions becoming coherently organized so to be composed of constituted objectivities.]
 
Insects probably move about in their realms of action and reaction without representing the exterior world as a homogenous objectivity that is independent to their realms of action and reaction. We would live the same way probably if we did not have language to objectify our exterior world. Note that children develop their conception of an exterior world around the same time that they learn to speak. And also note how an object becomes very distinct from us when we name it. And also, from that moment on, we can no longer deny the existence of this object. Philosophers have noted that all perception is constituted by judgment. What they have not sufficiently emphasized is that denomination is the first judgment and that denomination is the decisive moment of perception. [The idea here might be that we have sensory data, but it is organized into coherent perceptions containing constituted objects by means of the structures of language that shape our perceptions, with denomination being the most basic structure.]
L’insecte, sans doute, se meut dans son univers d’actions et de réactions sans se représenter le monde extérieur comme un objet indépendant de cet univers, qui reste ainsi homogène. Ne serions-nous pas dans la même ignorance si nous n’avions pas le langage ? Je remarque que l’enfant forme son idée du monde extérieur pendant le temps qu’il apprend à parler. Je note la netteté avec laquelle l’objet se détache de moi dès que je l’ai nommé. A partir de cet instant je ne peux plus lui refuser d’être un objet. Les philosophes ont bien observé que toute perception se constitue par un jugement. Mais ont-ils suffisamment souligné que c’est la dénomination qui est le premier jugement, et qu’elle est le moment décisif de la perception ?
(35)
 
 
 
2.6
(p.35. “Lorsque, ressentant certains troubles ...”)
 
[It is also possible that when we make a statement about our inner states that in fact we are mistaken, and a doctor who inspects our body would come to a different conclusion about our physical condition.]
 
Suppose we are feeling a certain kind of internal disturbance, and we announce that we are hungry. By making this declaration, we are not communicating our internal sensations to the person we address. Rather, we only signify that we have the desire to eat or at least that we believe that we need to eat. We think that our internal discomfort would be appeased if we ate some nourishing food. So by making this announcement, we are advancing a hypothesis about our condition [namely, that if we eat food, our inner discomfort will be alleviated.] But, we could be wrong about that, like how amputees have phantom sensations in their missing limbs. [I may get this next part wrong, so please read the quotation below. A doctor would determine our inner states by actually investigating them using tools that inspect our body’s inner workings. What we say is of secondary importance and is perhaps even meaningless or serves as an indicator to the doctor of something which does not match the intended meaning. So the doctor may hear from the amputee that she feels cold in her missing leg, but the doctor sees that as instead indicating some neurological condition. In the case of eating, perhaps, the doctor would use a stethoscope and determine not, as our words indicate, that we need food but rather that we have a certain digestive problem that makes us feel that way.]
Lorsque, ressentant certains troubles internes, je déclare que j’ai faim, je ne communique pas mes sensations aux personnes à qui je m’adresse, je leur signifie seulement que j’ai le désir de manger, ou plutôt encore que je crois que j’ai besoin de manger. J’ai pensé, en effet, que mon malaise serait calmé si j’absorbais quelque nourriture. Ce faisant, j’ai avancé une hypothèse touchant mon état. Mais je peux me tromper. Les mutilés ont bien froid à la jambe qui leur a été coupée. Un docteur n’accepterait pas nécessairement mon diagnostic. Chaque mot que je prononce n’est qu’une vibration de ma voix, un flatus vocis, pour qui refuse de lui attribuer le même contenu que moi. C’est donc que ce contenu ne lui est pas nécessairement attaché, c’est donc que je ne l’y dépose pas en le prononçant. Mon médecin ne m’interroge même pas, il m’ausculte.
(35)
 
 
2.7
(p.35-36 “Blaise Pascal nous a laissé une règle ...”)
 
[There is a fundamental rule of reasoning from Pascal which says that whenever using a term in our discourse, we should keep in the back of our mind the definition of that term.]
 
Pascal has a fundamental rule that holds well not just for geometrical reasoning but also for all reasoning and discourse. The rule is that when we use a term in a sentence, we have in mind while using that term its expanded definition, held in the backs of our mind. But while such a method would be fruitful in our discourse, is it practically applicable?
Blaise Pascal nous a laissé une règle que nous consi- | dérons, à bon droit, non seulement comme la règle fondamentale de tout raisonnement géométrique, mais aussi comme la règle d’or de tout raisonnement et de tout discours. Elle consiste à « substituer mentalement la définition à la place du dé fini » et à « avoir toujours la définition si présente que toutes les fois qu’on parle, par exemple, du nombre pair, on entende précisément que c’est celui qui est divisible en deux parties égales, et que les choses soient tellement jointes et inséparables dans la pensée, qu’aussitôt que le discours en exprime une, l’esprit y attache immédiatement l’autre. Car les géomètres et tous ceux qui agissent méthodiquement n’imposent de noms aux choses que pour abréger le discours et non pour diminuer ou changer l’idée des choses dont ils discourent 1 ». Mais cette règle, qui paraît si simple à l’énoncé qu’il suffirait d’un effort de chacun pour que tout e discussion devînt immédiatement féconde, est-elle applicable rigoureusement ?
(35-36)
1. BI. Pascal, De l’esprit géométrique. J. Hadamard (Leçons de géométrie élém., op. cit., p. 263) place cette règle en tête de son exposé sur la méthode en géométrie.
(36)





2.8
(p.36-37. “La véritable définition de mon état ...”)
 
[Defining our words for inner states leads to problems, because words and inner states are of fundamentally different natures, and the process of defining terms into other terms involves an infinite regress.]
 
The true definition of our inner state (that we call hunger) would be the set of sensations that we feel, and the true definition of hunger itself would be the set of sensations that would be satisfied were one to eat nourishing food. For, what is at issue here is our health and well-being. Our denomination [“I am hungry”] would be correct if these two sets [the set of sensations we feel that define our inner state and the set of sensations that define hunger] are identical, and false otherwise. [I may not have the next ideas right, so please check the quotation below. He says that these sorts of definitions and equations are impossible to produce. But I am not sure why, even though he says it is obvious. Perhaps it is the incommensurability of the realms of physical feeling and abstract denotation. Or maybe the problem is a circularity of some sort, where the word “hungry” is defined in terms of the hunger sensations, and the hunger sensations are defined in terms of the concept “hungry”. Or maybe feelings are just too vague to admit of definitive identification as members of a set. From what Parain says next suggests that the problem is that there is a paradox of infinite regression involved that has something to do with the fact that sensations and words are of different natures. I will wildly guess it is something like the following. We define our sensations as being sensations of hunger. Let us say the sensations are empty stomach and fatigue. But now we need to define the feeling of emptiness and fatigue. Fatigue for example is composed of sensations of tiredness and irritability. But now we must define those. And so on. But please read the text to arrive at the proper interpretation, as I doubt that is his meaning.]
La véritable définition de mon état que j’appelle faim serait l’ensemble des sensations que j’éprouve, la véritable définition de la faim serait l’ensemble des sensations, et de celles-là seulement, qui seraient apaisées par de la nourriture, et par rien d’autre que de la nourriture. Car, en effet, l’enjeu de l’entreprise est ici mon bien-être. Ma dénomination serait juste dans le cas où ces deux ensembles seraient identiques, et dans ce cas seulement, fausse dans le cas contraire. Mais de telles définitions et une telle équation sont évidemment impossibles à produire. D’où notre embarras dès que nous parlons. Où s’attachent nos paroles ? On compte fort peu de bons géomètres. Pourtant la géométrie est un domaine aux routes bien tracées et bien signalées. C’est qu’elle commence par des définitions et des axiomes, c’est-à-dire par des dénominations, qui ne sont pas claires pour chacun, « convaincantes », dirait Pascal. Puis-je accepter, préalablement à tout, que la ligne soit uniquement « la partie commune à deux portions contiguës d’une surface », la surface « la partie | commune à deux portions contiguës de l’espace », ne sachant pas ce que sont partie, commune, portions, surface, contigu, espace ... etc.? Ou le dois-je ? Et de quelle obligation ? Si, au contraire, je me demande d’abord pourquoi cet objet dont on me parle est appelé ligne? Il me faudrait évidemment, avant toute opération, être assuré que ces formules ont un sens et le même pour tous, c’est-à-dire, que chacun voit le 1nême objet lorsqu’on parle de la ligne. Or, même lorsque j’essaie d’établir pour moi un rapport entre mes sensations et mes paroles, je m’aperçois que c’est un problème insoluble puisqu1il s’agirait de poser une identité entre deux phénomènes de natures diverses. A plus forte raison si j’introduis, en outre, dans ce problème, d’autres facteurs pareillement incertains, à savoir les personnes avec qui j’entre en communication. Aussi ne puis-je m’empêcher de craindre, chaque fois que j’ouvre la bouche, d’être engagé dans une opération infinie, telle que la division de l’unité en la série
½ + 1/22 + 1/23 + 1/24 …,
les apories de Zénon et surtout le fameux argument du troisième homme m’en fournissent des exemples 1.
(36-37)
1. Voici un énoncé de cet argument qui nous a été transmis par Alexandre (In Métaph., 990 b. 15, p. 83, Hayduck) : « Si ce qu’on affirme de plusieurs choses à la fois est distinct de ces choses et subsistant par soi, il y aura. l’homme étant affirmé et des individus et de la forme, un troisième homme distinct et des individus et de la forme ; il y en aura de même un quatrième, puis un cinquième et ainsi à l’infini »(cité par M. A. Dies en nota à 132 b du Parménide de Platon, Les Belles Lettres, t. VIII, Ire partie, 1923, p. 63).
(37)




 
 
 
2.9
(p.37-38. “Il est donc impossible, théoriquement ...”)
 
[Even though there is this infinite regress built into discursive thinking, it must always begin problematically with denomination. Before we can predicate something, we need to denominate it, so denomination is the first conceptual attribution we make. It is also the first error, because the denominated thing does not inherently bear any such name, and so it is a sort of falsification or fabrication.]
 
So it is theoretically impossible that sensations and words may join together. Like Achilles chasing the Tortoise, the two will never meet. And if we write an equation, the first term will itself constitute a formula [and so on infinitely]. Yet discursive thinking must always begin in this way with the process of denomination, which consists in assigning a name to a thing. This is the first attribution on which all reasoning stands; for, before we can even say that Socrates is wise, we must first agree that the man in question will take the name Socrates. [The next idea seems to be that making such a denomination is an error (and “the first error”) because the thing itself does not inherently bear such a name, but rather it is assigned the name by fiat.]
Il est donc impossible, théoriquement, que sensations et mots se rejoignent, de même qu’Achille, poursuivant la tortue, ne réussira jamais à l’atteindre. On m’interdit d’additionner des chevaux et des portes. Comment pourrais-je écrire une équation dont le premier terme ne serait pas lui-même une formule ? Cependant telle est bien la démarche par laquelle débute toute pensée discursive. Cette démarche s’appelle la dénomination. | Elle consiste à attribuer un nom à une chose. Elle est la première attribution, celle sur qui tout raisonnement repose, car avant de dire que Socrate est sage, il faut d’abord qu’il soit convenu que cet homme dont il est question a pour nom Socrate. Et la première erreur est d’appeler Socrate un homme qui ne porte pas du tout ce nom.
(37-38)
 
 
 
2.10
(p.38. “Lorsque j’analyse l’expression « j’ai faim » ...”)
 
[When we say, “I am hungry”, the important operation here is not the predication to the subject; rather, the real operation at work is assigning the full statement “I am hungry” to our inner state. For, the “I” is implied in the speech act itself, being the speaker making the utterance. A child, in accordance with this implicit self-designation, would omit the “I”, saying just “hungry”. (Thus the predication is implicit, being the link between the speaker and stated predication, and so this is not the real operation at work.)]
 
When we analyze the expression, “I am hungry”, we see that we have “I” as the subject and “am hungry” as the predicate. But we must not forget the fact that the “I” is really we ourselves, in the flesh, actually now uttering this phrase. We might think that the real operation at work here is the combination of the subject with the predicate, but really it is to express the state that we perceive in us and name  when saying “I am hungry.” A child would simply say “hungry” or “eat”, because the “I” does not need to be enunciated, given that the child herself is the one doing the uttering [and thus it is redundant, since that the “I” is already indicated in that act of speech].
Lorsque j’analyse l’expression « j’ai faim », si je dis que « je » en est le sujet et « ai faim » le prédicat, je ne dois donc pas omettre d’ajouter que « je » c’est moi, à savoir ma personne en chair et en os au moment où elle prononce cette phrase. L’opération réelle n’a pas consisté à réunir « ai faim » comme prédicat au sujet « je », mais à exprimer un état que je perçois et à le nommer : «  j’ai faim ». Un enfant dirait sans doute, « faim » tout court ou « manger », car le « je » n’a pas du tout besoin d’être énoncé, puisque c’est lui-même qui énonce.
(38)
 
 
 
2.11
(p.38. “Voilà, du moins, ce que pense ...”)
 
[All this is how an umbiased observer would see language.]
 
What we have said so far is what an unprejudiced [or maybe untrained] observer of the phenomenon of language would think.
Voilà, du moins, ce que pense en premier lieu un observateur non prévenu des phénomènes de langage.
(38)
 
 
 
2.12
(p.38-39. “Sous l’influence de la logique formelle ...”)
 
[A sentence does not need a subject. It could be a one word predicate sentence that simply indicates a fact, general truth, a feeling, or an order.]
 
Parain then quotes from Antoine Meillet, who makes the point that it is on account of the use of logic and the focus on written language in grammatical theories that there was the assumption that every sentence naturally includes a subject and a predicate. This made single-word sentences seem incomplete: the sentence would be composed of a predicate, while the subject would be elliptical. [I am not sure, but Meillet’s next point seems to be the following. We put aside this logical prejudice, and we say that a sentence only needs to be something that is stated, whether or not it takes a completed subject-predicate form.] What is being stated can simply be a particular fact or a general truth that one indicates, or it could be a feeling that one expresses, or an order that one formulates. So we can call “predicate” that which is being enunciated. But we should note that this notion of a sentence differs from the concept of “proposition” in formal logic. [Propositions require both subject and predicate.] [Yet, if one utters a predicate-only sentence, it will not be directly stated in the sentence what is receiving that predication or what is doing that action.] Now, the conditions surrounding the speakers will often indicate what the predicate applies to. The single word-sentence is in fact something quite normal and may even be a structure found at the beginnings of language usage.
« Sous l’influence de la logique formelle, qui, jusqu’au début du XIXe siècle, a dominé toutes les théories grammaticales, par suite aussi de l’habitude de fonder les théories linguistiques sur des formes de la langue écrite, on s’est longtemps imaginé que toute phrase comporte naturellement un « sujet » et un « prédicat », remarquait naguère A. Meillet. La phrase à terme unique apparaissait dès lors comme incomplète : dans une phrase composée du prédicat seul, il y aurait « ellipse » du sujet. Pour qu’il y ait phrase, il faut et il suffit que quelque chose soit énoncé ; ce peut être un fait particulier ou une vérité générale que l’on indique, un sentiment que l’on exprime, un ordre que l’on formule. On peut convenir d’appeler « prédicat » ce qui est ainsi énoncé. Mais il faut retenir que la phrase ainsi définie diffère des « propositions » de la logique formelle, et par suite le terme de « prédicat » n’est pas ambigu. Les conditions où se trouvent les interlocuteurs suffisent souvent à indiquer à quoi s’applique le « prédicat ». La phrase à terme unique est chose normale, et c’est sans doute de là qu’est parti le langage. Les linguistes qui | ont réfléchi sur la théorie de la phrase s’en sont aperçus depuis longtemps 1 ... »
(38-39)
1. A. Meillet, Linguistique historique et linguistique générale, t. II, Paris, 1936, p. 2. A. Meillet s’efforce de montrer que l’élément premier du langage est non pas le mot mais la phrase. « C’est par la phrase à terme unique, dit-il encore, que les enfants commencent à parler. Du huitième au treizième mois l’enfant ne parle que par mots isolés ou répétés ... La phrase à terme unique est normale pour appeler quelqu’un : Pierre ! maman ! ... Elle est courante pour donner un ordre : feu ! halte ! en avant ! silence! elle est aussi commode pour indiquer une appréciation : bien ! dommage ! fâcheux ! ... etc. Des mots comme oui, non représentent le plus haut degré d’abstraction que puisse atteindre ainsi une réponse consistant en un seul mot. »  (Ibid., p. 3-4.)

 
 
 
2.13
(p.39-40. “Je ne peux pas penser sans être ...”)
 
[In fact, Descartes’ cogito argument is really more of an explication of a grammatical positing of a subject, built into the syntax of the sentence formulation, rather than being a inference that can be drawn deductively from premises.]
 
One consequence of such a theory would be that Descartes’ cogito deduction would become trivial, because the subject would be built into the predicate already, in a linguistic/syntactical way. Nietzsche shows how the grammatical structure implies a belief in a subject, but the conclusion of existence in the cogito argument is not an inference that is drawn but rather an explication of that grammatical belief.
La première conséquence d’une telle théorie serait de renverser le cogito de Descartes en le présentant comme une proposition triviale, « ergo sum » n’étant plus que l’explication du « je » qui figure dans le o de cogito, indicatif de la première personne du singulier. Je ne peux pas penser sans être, je ne peux pas parler sans penser, ni par conséquent sans postuler mon existence : tout cela est déjà dans le « je » de «je pense », dans le « o » de « cogito ». Écoutons Nietzsche à ce sujet 2 : « Soyons plus prudents, dit-il, que Descartes qui est resté pris au piège des mots. Cogito, à vrai dire, n’est qu’un seul mot, mais le sens en est complexe. (Il ne manque pas de choses complexes que nous empoignons brutalement, croyant de bonne foi qu’elles sont simples.) Dans ce célèbre cogito il y a : 1° quelque chose pense ; 2° je crois que c’est moi qui pense; 3° mais en admettant même que ce deuxième point soit incertain, étant matière de croyance, le premier point : quelque chose pense, contient également une croyance, celle que « penser » est une activité à laquelle il faut imaginer un sujet, quelconque ; et l’ergo sum ne signifie rien de plus. Mais c’est la croyance à la grammaire ; on suppose des « choses » et leurs « activités » et nous voilà bien loin de la certitude immédiate. Faisons donc abstraction de ce « quelque chose » problématique et disons cogitatur, pour constater un état de fait sans y mêler d’articles de foi : nous nous ferons illusion une fois de plus, car même la forme passive contient des articles | de foi outre des « états de fait » ; somme toute, c’est justement l’état de fait que l’on n’arrive pas à présenter tout nu ; les formules cogito, cogitat, cogitatur, contiennent toutes une « croyance » ou une « opinion ». Qui nous garantit que grâce à l’ergo nous n’enlevons pas quelque chose à cette croyance ou à cette opinion, si bien qu’il ne reste plus que ceci : « quelque chose est cru, donc quelque chose est cru », cercle vicieux! Enfin, il faudrait pourtant savoir ce que c’est qu’« être » pour tirer le sum du cogito ; il faudrait de même savoir ce que c’est que savoir : on part de la croyance à la logique, à l’ergo avant tout, et non pas uniquement de la position d’un fait. Dans le savoir, la « certitude » est-elle possible? La certitude immédiate n’est-elle pas peut-être une contradictio in adjecto ? Qu’est-ce que connaître par rapport à être? Pour celui qui apporte sur ces points une croyance toute faite, la prudence cartésienne n’a plus de sens ; elle vient trop tard. Avant d’en venir au problème de l’ « être », il faudrait avoir résolu le problème de la valeur de la logique. »
(39-40)
2. La Volonté de puissance, éd. F. Würzbach, L. I., Introduction, fragment 98 (trad. G. Bianquis, N.R.F., 1935, t. I, p. 65).
(39)


 
 
 
2.14
(p.40-41. “Nietzsche pose parfaitement le problème ...”)
 
[This grammatical deception in Descartes’ cogito argument shows us how a study of the nature and functions of language necessarily leads us to an examination of the relations between truth and reality.]
 
By holding that the problem of language is a matter of logic, Nietzsche poses the problem of language perfectly. The “I” of “I think” is no more than Descartes or Nietzsche themselves, or whoever else might be uttering this proposition. Thus Descartes’ cogito argument is a philosophical deception. It would only work if indeed its utterance entails the affirmation of the extra-phenomenal existence of the utterer and listener. So, to study the nature and functions of language involves an examination of the relations between truth and reality.
Nietzsche pose parfaitement le problème du langage, en ne croyant poser que celui de la logique. Si le « je » de « je pense » n’est que Descartes en personne ou Nietzsche, ou quiconque énonce cette proposition, le cogito est une duperie philosophique. Il additionne des chevaux et des portes. Il nous présente comme un fait ce qui n’est qu’une opinion. Mais alors ce n’est pas seulement la logique qui est renversée dans son principe, c’est aussi le langage lui-même, qui commet à chaque instant la même faute. Il n’y a plus moyen de rien affirmer, ni même de rien dire, sans se tromper et tromper les autres. Le cogito ne peut avoir de sens que si le postulat sur lequel il repose est vrai, à savoir que l’énoncé pur et simple d’un mot ou d’une phrase implique l’affirmation d’une existence extra-phénoménale de celui qui par le et de celui qui écoute, et introduit l’un et l’autre dans ce que nous appelons le monde intelligible. Descartes n’a pas formulé ce postulat, il l’a seulement préparé en distinguant avec soin notre existence phénoménale qu’il est prêt à traiter de rêve et l’existence essentielle dont il parle. On verra que la discussion | des différents problèmes posés par la nature et les fonctions du langage conduit toujours et nécessairement à l’examen des rapports entre vérité et réalité. Regardons d’abord quelques aspects bien connus mais souvent négligés de nos paroles.
(40-41)
 
 
 
2.15
(p.41-42. “Il ne suffit pas pour aimer quelqu’un ...”)
 
[We notice the difference between a true situation and its verbal articulation in the case of love. It is not enough to truly be in love with someone and to behave accordingly but without speaking that love. One must communicate that love verbally. In the case of the peasant, he is aware of the particular existences around him, like the potatoes he digs and the sounds of other peasants working near him. He also comes to be aware of the particular existence of the white worm he sees. But by declaring it verbally, he turns his mind not just to that particular worm but more broadly to the general type, white worms and their resulting beetle infestations.]
 
When in love with someone, it is not enough to simply act in accordance with one’s love; one must also tell that person that you are in love with them. For the other person to be surrounded by an undeclared tenderness and to be the object of constant doting is not at all the same thing as receiving the promises and commitments that words of love carry with them. To feel poetic and to actually be a poet [who turns poetic feelings into words] are two distinct things. [As we saw in numerous sections above, words do more than replicate the world around us; they in fact populate it with the things we perceive and discuss.] Our words create beings and they are not content to simply manifest our sensations. We recall now the illustration of the peasant digging up potatoes. The peasant attends to many details in his surroundings; for example, he notices the condition of the soil, that the harvest is good, that the potatoes are in good condition; he hears the voices of other people farming nearby, the cars driving by; he notices how the air warms if the sun peeks beyond the passing clouds; he lives, grows old, tires, labors… then suddenly he cries out “Hey, a white worm!” The peasant was not surprised by all the other things whose existence registered in his awareness, so it is remarkable that the existence of this thing surprised him so and called forth his verbal declaration. This exclamation and nomination is not simply a statement of existence but rather an affirmation of existence; that is to say, it is not the indication of some particular individual thing or event but rather the signification of a general type or class. [I am not sure I understand the distinction yet. Perhaps the idea is the following. The peasant’s mind is constantly directed to particular existences and events, like the particular potatoes he sees, the sounds he hears, and so on. But when he sees the white grub, his mind is attending not just to that particular insect but rather to the matter of white grubs more generally, or at least their later beetle forms, as a class of things that when manifesting as an actual group of such particulars presents a major problem for farmers.]
Il ne suffit pas pour aimer quelqu’un d’agir selon l’amour, il faut encore le lui dire. Etre entouré d’une tendresse qui ne se déclare pas, être l’objet d’une sollicitude constante n’est pas du tout la même chose que d’avoir reçu la promesse ou l’engagement qu’apporte la parole 1. Ressentir poétiquement et être poète sont deux choses tout à fait distinctes. C’est que nos paroles créent des êtres et qu’elles ne se contentent pas de manifester des sensations. L’exemple du paysan qui arrache ses pommes de terre va nous instruire ici. Il n’est pas sans apercevoir maints détails qu’il ne formulera pas. Il surveille, tout en travaillant, l’état de sa terre, il enregistre dans son corps des impressions qui ne se perdent pas parce qu’elles le transforment au fur et à mesure de leurs apparitions, il voit que la récolte est bonne, que les pommes de terre ne sont pas trop gâtées ni trop mangées, il entend les voix des gens qui jardinent non loin de lui, les voitures qui cahotent dans le chemin, il a chaud si le soleil se montre après un nuage, il v it, il vieillit, il se fatigue, il se | façonne ... puis soudain il s’écrie : « Tiens, un ver blanc! » Son exclamation n’a pas pour but de constater l’existence du ver blanc, comme si celle-ci venait de lui être révélée par son regard. Il ne doute pas de l’existence de toutes les autres choses qui l’entourent et vous 1’étonneriez si vous faisiez une distinction de cette nature entre le ver blanc dont il parle et le soleil dont il ne parle pas, qui pourtant lui fait ouvrir son col de chemise ou enlever son gilet. Ce que son exclamation lui apporte, ce n’est pas une constatation d’existence, mais une affirmation d’existence, ce n’est pas l’indication d’un individu ou d’un événement particulier, mais la signification d’un genre.
(41-42)
1. « Edmée n’en avait pas moins été jusqu’ici assez peu sûre d’elle- même, sa théorie de la vertu était que les hommes ont un mot, qui leur donne toute femme, quand ils l’emploient à propos. Le mot n’étant généralement pas le même pour chacune, il arrive qu’à la faveur des confusions pas mal de vertus restent intactes, mais tous les accidents arrivés aux amies d’Edmée, à des amies sages, insensibles, lui prouvaient qu’elle avait raison. C’était toujours aux paroles qu’elles avaient dû leur chute, comme on dit, comme elles ne disent pas. Jamais cela n’avait ressemblé au rapt, à la surprise, à la détente, à la brutalité. C’est en tant qu’orateur que l’homme les avait toutes gagnées ... Aucune n’avait cédé à un muet, ou à un silencieux. Parfois le mot était un simple mot, un imparfait pluriel du subjonctif, un de ces noms communs mélangé dans la foule des noms communs, mais qui ont gardé une valeur d’incantation, d’inflexion, un nom géographique. .. Elle avait bien suivi Pierre, qui n’avait dit qu’un mot lointainement parent du vrai mot, parent seulement dans son apparence, d’une parenté qui semblait d’ailleurs chaque jour plus lointaine : je vous aime. Chez les Seeds tous étaient muets. » (J. Giraudoux, Cheix des Élues, chap. v.)
(41)


 
 
 
2.16
(p.42-43. “Chaque mot, en effet, dépasse l’individuel ...”)
 
[Words transcend the particular individuals they might be referencing and instead exist on another conceptual level. When we speak of specific things, including reference to our own self as in “I am hungry”, the listener is not seeing the reference as going to the particular thing in question, even the speaker themself, because words refer our minds to a realm of ideas. When someone dies, their name survives them, but their name is simply our memory of them, and not they themselves.]
 
Each word, then, transcends the individual and belongs to a class, and thereby it transposes sensible reality to a whole other domain. What we know regarding a plum tree that may grow beside our home is not the tree itself but rather plum trees in general, which is neither our nor any other tree but is rather the idea of the plum tree or the sense of the word “plum tree”. [If our knowledge of the plum tree were no different than the plum tree, then were the tree to die, so too would our knowledge of it.] The death of our plum tree would not destroy our knowledge of the plum tree, rather, it would possibly increase our knowledge of it [by for example teaching us what sorts of influences may harm it so much as to bring about its death.] If we say “this tree” or “my house”, we simply signify that we are showing to someone that this tree or that this house belongs to us. What we signify then is a relation. [I am not sure, but in the first case, perhaps the relation is between speaker or hearer and the tree, being a relation of pointing out and noticing, and in the second case it would probably be the relation between the house and the speaker, being one of possession.] But we do not here represent the tree or the house in their individuality. Now suppose we try to describe our row of linden trees or our forked ash tree. Whether the listener has seen them or not, they will be content with images that our words evoke without them having the urge to go see the actual trees. For, it is not the actual trees that interest them; rather they are interested in what our words are telling them. If we want to recognize someone, we give them a name, but that name is not they themselves. [In this example, it might help if we think of giving someone a name other than their birth name, like, “the one with the x physical feature” or “the one who does x characteristically”.] That person will be offended if we treat them as a name rather than as them themselves. [I may not get the next idea right, but I will guess. When someone dies, their name survives them, but their name is simply our memory of them, and not they themselves. So the idea might be the following. A name for someone is like a phantom that hovers around a person while remaining anchored to them. It is not they themselves, but it is an abstraction of them that other people use to associate their impressions and memories of the person. Thus when they die, the name continues to associate and cohere those memories. Yet, while the name is assigned to the person, this phantom afterlife of the person is not that very person living on, but simply his conceptual and impressional remnants living on in the minds of others.] So recall our example of us saying “I am hungry”. [I may also misconstrue this example, so please consult the quotation below. Parain might be saying that when we presently say “I am hungry” to another person standing before us, the “I” is not understood to be we ourself, the physical person speaking, but rather it represents some mental construction of us that the other person has, similar to the memories and impressions others have of the dead person.]
Chaque mot, en effet, dépasse l’individuel et appartient au genre 1, transpose la réalité sensible dans un autre domaine qui lui est propre. Ce dont j’ai la science, ce n’est pas du prunier qui pousse à côté de notre maison, mais du prunier en général et qui n’est ni mon arbre ni aucun arbre enraciné, mais une idée du prunier, le sens du mot prunier. La mort de mon prunier ne détruira pas ma science du prunier, au contraire même est-elle susceptible de l’accroître. Si je dis cet | arbre, ma maison, je signifie seulement que je montre un arbre, que cette maison m’appartient, je signifie un rapport, je ne représente pas l’arbre ou la maison dans leur individualité. Même si je tente de décrire une chose ou de la définir, je parlerai de mon allée de tilleuls ou du frêne fourchu qui ferme la pointe de la prairie, mais celui qui n’aura pas vu mon allée de tilleuls ou le frêne dont il est question ne les imaginera pas tels qu’ils sont, rien qu’à m’écouter ou à m e lire, celui qui les aura vus préférera pour les évoquer leur image à mes paroles, et celui qui se contentera de mes paroles au lieu de les aller voir, c’est parce que ce ne sont pas le frêne ou les tilleuls qui l’intéressent, mais ce que mes paroles lui disent. Si je veux reconnaître quelqu’un, je lui donne un nom, mais ce nom n’est pas lui. Il le sait bien et me reproche amèrement de le trahir lorsque je le traite comme un nom et non comme sa personne. Madec a été tué, il est mort et son nom lui survit mais il n’est que mon souvenir de lui, celui de sa mère et de sa sœur, comme il n’a jamais été que notre pensée de lui. Même le « je » de « j’ai faim », alors que c’est moi qui le prononce, et que mes interlocuteurs me voient, m’entendent, complètent ce que mes paroles expriment à l’aide de toutes les autres impressions que leur apportent leurs sens, même dans ce cas qui paraît le plus proche de la communication directe, ce n’est pas moi que le « je » exprime, mais une figure de moi, ma pensée de moi, ou, pour reprendre les termes de Spinoza, une détermination de moi 1.
(42-43)
1. On rapprochera les remarques qui suivent des arguments dont se servaient les Platoniciens, d’après Aristote et Alexandre, pour démontrer l’existence des Idées. « Si toute science, disaient-ils, en accomplissant son œuvre propre, la rapporte à un objet un et identique, et non à tel ou tel objet particulier – le raisonnement géométrique, par exemple, à l’essence du triangle et non à tel triangle tracé en particulier –, il faut que, en dehors des choses sensibles, il y ait quelque chose de distinct, qui soit éternel et serve de modèle aux objets que, dans chaque cas particulier, se proposent les sciences; ce quelque chose, c’est Idée. En outre ce qui est objet de science existe; or les sciences portent sur un objet qui est distinct des choses particulières ; celles-ci en effet, sont en nombre infini et indéterminées : l’objet de la science, c’est au contraire le déterminé. Il y a des réalités séparées des choses particulières: ce sont les Idées. Enfin, si la médecine n’est pas la science de telle ou telle santé mais de la santé prise absolument, il faut qu’il y ait une santé en soi: de même si la géométrie n’est pas la science de tel ou tel cas d’égalité ou de commensurabilité, mais de l’égal ou du commensurable pris absolument, il faut qu’il y ait un égal en soi et un commensurable en soi : or ce sont précisément les Idées. » (Commentaire d’Alexandre à Aristote, Métaphysique, A 990 b. 1-17 (apud Léon Robin : La Théorie platonicienne des Idées et des Nombres, Paris, 1908, chap. 1, § 2). Pour le rapport entre εἴδη et λόγοι, cf. B. Parain Essai sur le logos platonicien, Paris, p. 52 sqq.
(42, first footnote 1 above)
 
1. Lettre 50, à J. Jelles, éd. Van Vloten, t. II, p. 361 : figura non aliud quam determinatio. Spinoza ajoute : et determinatio negatio est, formule que nous examinerons à l’instant.
(43, second footnote 1 above)





 
 

2.17
(p.43-44. “On dit que notre langage découpe ...”)
 
[Language makes stable unities out of the fleeting partialities of the world we experience.]
 
It is said that language cuts objects from their moving reality, and this claim is made like an accusation against us. And in fact we very often find that our words are inadequate to the meanings we intend for them to carry, and we may reproach ourselves in some cases if we feel that we have thereby done something wrong [by inadequately stating what we mean, especially in important matters.] But even though words distort reality, our words serve also as formations or affirmations of essences or what is essential with regard to something. Would the light we see, the sadness we feel, or the wind we notice exist without our words for it, or would there be [in the place of these constituted unities of physical or perceptual parts] simply vibrations, the collisions of atoms, the moments of our conscious durations, the clouds moving in the sky, the trees swaying in the wind, a breath of air, in their fleeting nature?
On dit que notre langage découpe arbitrairement des objets dans la réalité mouvante. On le dit comme si nous en étions coupables. Et en effet nous éprouvons toujours le tourment d’une inadéquation de nos paroles et de ce que nous les chargeons d’exprimer, nous ne cessons de nous reprocher les méfaits de cette inexactitude. Determinatio negatio est. Tout ce que nos paroles laissent échapper de cette réalité mouvante est sacrifié, semble-t-il, ou du moins n’est pas représenté alors | qu’il le devrait être. J’ai faim, mais cette faim ne me figure pas tout entier. Il court, mais il ne fait pas que courir, il pense à ses affaires, il a peur ou il est exalté, et peut-être même ressent-il l’infini dans cette course qui n’en finit pas et dont il ne connaît pas le but, car il sera peut-être arrêté par une chute, une balle, ou un spasme de son cœur. Mais il ne nous est pas donné d’agir autrement. Autant qu’une déformation, nos paroles sont une formation, autant qu’une négation de quelque chose, elles sont affirmation d’autre chose, qui est peut-être le plus important, qui est peut-être l’essentiel. Essence est dans essentiel. La lumière, la tristesse, le vent existeraient-ils sans les mots de notre langage? N’y aurait-il pas, à leur place, que des vibrations, des chocs d’atomes, des moments indétachables de ma durée, des nuages fuyant sous le ciel, des arbres gémissants, un souffle de l’air, disparus aussitôt qu’apparus, n’apparaissant pas même?
Quand tu sauras mon crime et le sort qui m’accable,
Je n’en mourrai pas moins, j’en mourrai plus coupable 1.
« Il devenait fou; il lui sembla qu’en se penchant ils se donnaient des baisers, là, sous ses yeux. Cela est impossible en ma présence, se dit-il ; ma raison s’égare. Il fa ut se calmer; si j’ai des manières rudes, la duchesse est capable, par simple pique de vanité, de le suivre à Belgirate ; et là, ou pendant le voyage, le hasard peut amener un mot qui donnera un nom à ce qu’ils sentent l’un pour l’autre ; et après, en un instant, toutes les conséquences 2. »
(43-44)
1. Phèdre, acte I, scène II.
2. Stendhal , La Chartreuse de Parme, Ire partie, chap. VII (Bibl. de la Pléiade, p. 153). Le comte Mosca est jaloux, il craint que la duchesse Sanseverina « fasse amour » avec Fabrice, mais il n’en est pas sûr, et il est assez fin pour éviter toute maladresse qui provoquerait l’irréparable. La déclaration qui « cristalliserait » les sentiments que la duchesse et Fabrice ont l’un pour l’autre et les transformerait en une liaison, Stendhal y verrait volontiers un effet du « hasard ». Toute la question est là. Elle a été soulevée par Pascal. C’est celle du rapport entre nos paroles, l’univers et nous-mêmes. Du moins Stendhal nie-t-il que la passion puisse en être la seule cause.
(44)







2.18
(p.45-46. “Les théologues d’Héliopolis ...”)
 
[There is a mythological and religious idea that words had divine creative power at the origins of the world. This is a deep rooted notion that there is an intimate relationship between language and reality.]
 
The theologians of Heliopolis thought that nothing exists before being named. Semitic peoples held the similar view that God created the universe through his divine word. The Christian gospels express similar ideas. [I may get these next points wrong, so please consult the quotation below. They might be the following. Peasants and workers speak with an assurance that their words designate real things, and they are united with the world they work in. When we say the word “road”, we think it to be the road itself, in its physical existence. We think that our words speak certain real things. (I probably do not have this right, because it seems to contradict what he said before about the disjunction between reality and language. I assume that Parain is drawing a distinction between a common sense practical notion of language and the more metaphysically precise one he explained above. But I am not sure.) We see this also in the Cartesian (and Spinozist) notion that the order and connection of ideas corresponds to that of things. Discourse’s purpose is to faithfully represent the way of things. The only distinction to draw is that for the workman, words signify objects, while for the philosopher they represent the essences of things. But both artisans and philosophers picture that at the origins, words and things were just two aspects corresponding to the same divinely creating thought and that they are closely linked by a mysterious but incontestable relation.]
Les théologues d’Héliopolis avaient fort bien discerné que « nulle chose n’existe avant que d’être nommée 1 ». L’Orient sémitique nous apparaît comme illuminé par ce principe de la naissance des choses : « Dieu des pères, Seigneur de miséricorde, qui avez fait l’univers par votre parole ... » (ὁ ποιήσα τὰ πὰντ ἐν λογοίς σου), enseigne le Livre de la Sagesse 2. Une prière du matin dans la synagogue commence par une adresse à Dieu qui prolonge jusqu’à nos jours l’écho des premiers versets de la Genèse : « Béni sois -tu qui parlas ct le monde fut 3. » Et nous-mêmes, qui avons hérité de cette tradition par le IVe évangile, nous disons encore, parlant d’un personnage dont nous voulons proclamer la puissance : « il n’a qu’un mot à dire », comme si cet homme n’était pas puissant par son art de faire exécuter ses ordres, mais parce que ses paroles, d’elles-mêmes, | deviendraient des actes 1. Les paysans de mon pays, lorsqu’ils citent un dicton qui prédit le temps, ne disent pas : « c’est vrai », mais « cela y fait ». « La pluie du matin n’arrête pas le pèlerin, cela y fait. » Et comment pourrait-il en être autrement? Le paysan, l’ouvrier parleraient-ils avec cette assurance de désigner des choses réelles, et de ne faire qu’un avec le monde où ils travaillent, aurions-nous jamais lu et étudié, si nous n’avions pas été convaincus avant d’y avoir réfléchi, si nous ne restions pas persuadés contre toute réflexion, qu’en énonçant le mot « route », c’est la route elle-même, en pierres et en sable, que nous proférons, qu’à chacune de nos paroles nous disons quelque chose (τι λέγειν). C’est une opinion du sens commun, mais c’est aussi le postulat de la philosophie cartésienne. « Ordo et connexio idearum idem est ac ordo et connexio rerum 2. » Le rôle du discours est de représenter fidèlement le cours des choses. Autrement il n’est pas de langage possible. La seule différence est que l’artisan croit que les mots signifient des objets, et encore peut-être pense-t-il plutôt, comme Platon, qu’ils signifient des modèles, alors que le philosophe croit qu’ils figurent l’essence des choses. Mais tous deux admettent confusément qu’à l’origine mots et choses n’ont été que deux aspects correspondants d’une même pensée divine créatrice, et qu’ils sont étroitement liés par un rapport mystérieux mais incontestable.
(45-46)
1. A. Moret, Le Nil et la civilisation égyptienne, Paris, 2e éd., 1926, p. 437. « La création a donc été réalisée quand la bouche du Démiurge eut proféré les noms de tout ce qui existe. Nous avons dit plus haut l’importance du nom, qui extériorise un concept jusque-là tout mental, et qui le crée matériellement, en lui conférant une existence visible par l’écriture et audible par la voix. Avant la Création « nul Dieu n’existait encore; on ne connaissait le nom d’aucune chose »; si le Démiurge, à ce moment initial, était encore inconnu, indéfini, c’est qu’ « il n’existait point de mère pour 1ui, qui lui ait fait son nom, point de père pour lui qui l’ait émis ». Nulle chose n’existe donc avant que d’être nommée. [Inversement on tue quelqu’un en annihilant son nom, procédé employé par les magiciens.] Au papyrus de Nesmin, le Démiurge proclame : «J’ai créé toutes les formes avec ce qui est sorti de ma bouche, alors qu’il n’y avait ni ciel ni terre » – création par le Verbe, dont l’écho se retrouve dans les écrits hermétiques, la Genèse, l’évangile selon saint Jean, etc. » Pour la théorie du Verbe créateur en Égypte, voir aussi ibid., p. 439-440. « La langue opère dans tous les domaines. Nous verrons qu’elle crée les offrandes du culte funéraire (pert Icherou) et qu’elle fait « sortir » à la voix « les Dieux et les morts quand elle les appelle ». Cf. aussi A. Moret : Mystères égyptiens, Paris, nouvelle éd. 1927, p. 105 sqq. et Rituel du culte divin journalier en Égypte, Paris, 1902, p.129 sqq.
2. IX, 1. Cf. aussi Ecclésiaste, XLII, 15. Ps. CVII, 20-CXLVII, 15. Isaïe, LV. 11... etc.
3. image Israelitisches Gebetbuch, J. Schwanthaber, Francfort-sur-1e-Main, p. 23). On sait que le premier chapitre et les quatre premiers versets ct demi du second chapitre de la Genèse (I et II, 4a) contiennent un récit de la création du monde différent de celui qui apparaît dans les chapitres suivants (Genèse, II, 4 b et sqq.). Dans la premier récit Dieu agit par sa parole  (image) et dans le second il fabrique (image).
(45, for the first set of footnotes)
 
1. De même qu’un Égyptien d’il y a 4 000 ans disait : « Toute chose qui sort de la bouche du roi se réalise sur-le-champ, car le Dieu lui a donné la connaissance de ce qui est dans les cœurs, parce qu’il est plus auguste que tout Dieu. » (Texte égyptien cité par A. Moret, op. cit., p. 229.) La théorie de Spinoza : « substantia cogitans et substantia extensa una eademque est substantia, quæ jam sub hoc, jam sub illo attributo comprehenditur. Sic etiam modus extensionis et idea illius modi una eademque est res, sed duobus modis ex pressa ; quod quidam Hebræorum quasi per nebulam vidisse videntur, qui scilicet statuunt, Deum, Dei intellectum, resque ab ipso intellectas, unum et idem esse «  (Éthique, Scolie de la propos. VII du Livre II ; cf. le corollaire à la même prop. : Dei cogitandi potentia aequalis est ipsius actuali agendi potentiæ) est aussi celle de saint Thomas d’Aquin.
2. Éthique, L. II., Prop. VII.
(46, for the second set of footnotes)











2.19
(p.46-47. “Cependant nous savons que le mot ...”)
 
[But to be clear, language does not really have this intimate relation with the things referenced. Our nouns refer to classes of things, and even the first person pronoun refers not to we in the flesh and in the entirety of our being but rather to some limited aspect of us that is relevant to the circumstances of that utterance of “I”.]
 
[In the previous section we came to blur the difference between the language and the world it corresponds to.] Yet we know that the word is not the thing, because it never represents an object or a person in their individuality. The “a” of the peasant’s exclamation, “Hey! A white worm!” is an indefinite article. What the peasant wanted to hold before his mind was a threat much greater than the larva of a beetle among thousands of similar ones. He just as easily could have said, “Hey, here’s something!” or simply, “Hey!” or “Ah!”. It does not matter what, so long as language is set in motion [as a response to the noticed situation]. And the “I” of “I am hungry is not we ourselves; rather it is the aspect of us that we manifest at this moment. [We take note here that Parain explicitly uses the term “manifeste”; manifestation is an important concept in Deleuze’s treatment of language in the Logic of Sense. Parain writes: “Le je de « j’ai faim » n’esi pas moi, c’est l’aspect que je manifeste de moi à ce moment-là.”] Those who hear us use “I” in reference to ourselves know little about us. They do know regarding Parain for example who he is, where he comes from, how old he is, how he feels about them, or what his destiny is. We simply reveal to our listeners one thing about us, which is just what we need them to know of us in that situation. So, the “I” of the Cartesian “cogito” is not Descartes himself. Many people have repeated his cogito argument without even knowing that his first name was Réne, that he is a Touraine, that he fought in a war, that he distrusted the Jesuits, that he took pleasure in women, and so on. The being that is created by speech is not a being in the flesh; rather, it is a being of reason.
Cependant nous savons que le mot n’est pas la chose, puisqu’il ne représente jamais ni un objet ni | une personne dans leur individualité. Le un de l’exclamation du paysan est indéfini. Ce que notre homme a voulu poser devant son esprit, c’est une menace beaucoup plus même qu’une larve de hanneton, parmi des milliers d’autres semblables à elle. Il aurait dit volontiers aussi bien : « Tiens, un machin! », ou simplement : « Tiens! » ou encore d’une façon tout à fait fruste : « Ah! » Peu importe. L’essentiel, pour lui, était de mettre en mouvement le langage. Le je de « j’ai faim » n’esi pas moi, c’est l’aspect que je manifeste de moi à ce moment-là. Ceux qui m’écoutent ignorent qui je suis, d’où je viens, quel âge j’ai, quels sentiments je nourris à leur égard, quel est mon destin. Je ne leur révèle de moi qu’une chose, ce que j’attends d’eux à ce moment-là. Le je du « cogito » cartésien n’est pas Descartes, et combien de gens le répètent sans savoir que Descartes avait pour prénom René, était tourangeau, avait fait la guerre, se méfiait des jésuites, se plaisait au commerce des femmes, etc. L’être que crée la parole, ce n’est pas un être de chair, c’est un être de raison, c’est la culpabilité de Phèdre, l’idée naissant en Fabrice qu’il aime la duchesse et qu’il doit se jeter à ses pieds, la notion de ma personnalité, la conception du vent, de la lumière, de la chaleur, en un mot tout ce qui constitue le monde intelligible.
(46-47)
 
 
 
2.20
(p.47. “Il y a deux modes de l’existence ...”)
 
[There are two modes of existence: {1} that of inner sentiment, and {2} that of the word. The “I” of speech thus exists under the second mode. And the stable, universal, determined, and permanent reality that we come to know is thus language.]
 
There are two modes of existence. {1} The mode of existing of our inner sentiments. {2} The mode of existing of the word that confers to thought its first content. It is this mode of word-existence that is the mode under which the “I” of the cogito exists, and it is this existence that is explicated in the “therefore I am”. [I do not understand the final point, so please consult the quotation below. It might be the following, but I am not sure. We have perceptions of a world in flux. But we also think of a stable, universal, determined, and permanent reality that is the object of our scientific knowledge. It does not flee with our fleeting perceptions but somehow remains fixed. This reality is language.]
Il y a deux modes de l’existence. Le sentiment que nous avons de la nôtre en est un. Je doute qu’il puisse s’étendre, en tant que sentiment, riche et trouble, à d’autres existences. Je doute même qu’il soit pur de toute perception, c’est-à-dire de toute pensée et de tout langage, malgré le silence, malgré nos joies et nos angoisses que nous croyons totales. Le second est inclus dans le mot qui apporte à la pensée sa première donnée. C’est lui qui est contenu dans le « je » du « cogito » et que le « donc je suis » développe. La réalité stable, universelle, déterminée, permanente qui est l’objet de notre science, j’entends l’objet que nous examinons et qui ne fuit pas sous nos sens en même temps que le temps, c’est le langage. Les philosophes ne peuvent rien vouloir dire d’autre lorsqu’ils affirment que tout commence en nous avec la perception.
(47)





From:
 
Parain, Brice. 1942. Recherches sur la nature et les fonctions du langage. Paris: Gallimard.



.